United States (abbreviated U.S.) or (English: United States of America - USA or the United States - U.S.) is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and one federal district. Except Alaska (northern Canada) & Hawaii (Pacific Ocean), 48 other states and the federal district located in North America.
United States borders with Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and with Canada in the north and northwest (Alaska exclave). In the west the country borders the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean. In addition there are many areas and colonies in many parts of the world such as Hawaii, which is a state, and the other areas such as Puerto Rico, Guam, etc. are included in the commonwealth.
America is made up of 13 former British colonies freed themselves on July 4, 1776. After that America expands massively, bought Louisiana from the French regions and Alaska from Russia and the annexed areas of Mexico that is New Mexico, Texas, and California) after the Mexican-American War.
America is a country with the fourth largest region in the world, after Russia, Canada, and China & the third largest in population, after China and India. But when viewed in economic terms, America is number one in the world, covering about a quarter to a third of total world economic output.
Model of democracy presidential administration, followed by countries other Latin American.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Politics
* State 3
* 4 Geography
* 5 Economy
* 6 Education
* 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Religion
* 8 Culture
8.1 o federal holidays
* 9 See also
* 10 External links
10.1 o government official site
o 10.2 Other
[edit] History
! Main article: History of the United States
United States is made up of 13 former British colonies after the American Revolution after the declaration of independence on July 4, 1776. At its origin, its political structure was a confederation. But after a long debate and the formation of the American Constitution, the colony was finally agreed to form alliance countries.
In the 19th century, U.S. forces spread throughout the continent of North America. Through coercion, military force and diplomacy, the United States have many states, other states within and outside the country such as Cuba and the Philippines. Even so, this country experienced the worst social problems. In an effort to develop the area of white rule, the native Indians have been victimized. Through military force, destruction, removal and construction of the reservation area, the native Indians had been removed. In the south, there is a system of slavery with the blacks as second-class citizens. Discrimination against the color is one of the causes of civil war between the state of the states of North and South. Although the system of slavery had been abolished after the defeat of the countries of the South, racism is rampant that continues to the mid-20th century.
During this era, this country move forward into an industrial world ruler, who continues so to the 20th century, known as the American Century glory or the American Century. In this century, the expanding American influence in the international arena and become the center of technological innovation as well as Best in the world when it was. Some donations technology including telephone, television, computers, Internet, nuclear weapons, airplanes and space travel.
This country has suffered some bitter experiences such as the American Civil War (1861-1865) and the bad economic collapse during "Great Depression" (1929-1939) who not only hit the United States in fact almost the entire world. Recent experience is the most pathetic 9 / 11 attacks on 11 September 2001 at the World Trade Center, New York, where nearly three thousand people killed by terrorist attacks.
In terms of history, this country has been involved in several major world wars, the War of 1812 against England, and also with berpakta England during World War I and World War II. In the 1960s the American involvement in the Cold War against another great power and influence of Soviet communism. In an effort to stem the spread of communism in Asia, the United States in the Korean War, Vietnam and the last in Afghanistan. After the Soviet collapse and fragmentation, the U.S. got into an economic power and the strongest military in the world. During the 1990s, the U.S. enthrone himself as the world police and army action in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the First Gulf War against Iraq that invaded Kuwait. Following the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 at the World Trade Center and Pentagon, the United States launched a counterattack against Afghanistan and the Taliban in the country dropped there and in 2003 launched the Second Gulf War against Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein's regime.
[edit] Politics
! Main article for this section are: Politics in the United States
United States is a constitutional democracy with a three-tier system and a free judiciary institutions. There are three ranks of the national, state and local governments have legislative and executive bodies in the field of power each. These countries use the system of federalism in the community or in countries where the central and state governments share power. Central state power for a few cases such as the printing of U.S. currency and defense policy. However, the states power to determine rights and laws of each such as abortion rights and a maximum penalty of a baby in terms of legislation.
One element that is evident in the American division of powers doctrine. Article 1 to 3 U.S. Constitution, has been outlined in detail on the powers of the major countries of the executive, legislative and judicial. Checks and Balances or checks and balances is a major feature of American countries and it is so comprehensive that no one branch of a country that has absolute power to oversee the other branches.
In this country all people aged 18 years and over have the right to choose. Elections for the presidential elections held every four years and the last was in November 2004.
In addition to the presidential elections, there were midterm election, held in mid term as president. In this election the president is not elected, but all members of the House of Representatives and one third of all senators from each state. This election was last held on 7 November 2006.
[edit] State
Geographical map of the United States
! Main article for this section are: States United States
As the United States declared independence, the thirteen colonies became states-states. At first the state of these states joined as an alliance but later formed a unified state. In the following years, the number of states increases with the entry-state in the western states, the purchase of land and the state split the states that already exists. Each state is divided to the counties (such districts), cities (a kind of autonomous municipalities or cities) and townships (such districts).
The United States also has a federal district, Washington, DC, and the colonies such as Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam and the Virgin Islands.
In addition to the state, one federal district, and some areas that could be called a colony.
[show]
v • b • s
Subdivisions of the United States
State
Alabama · · Alaska Arizona Arkansas · · California · South Carolina · North Carolina · Colorado · Connecticut · South Dakota North Dakota · · Delaware · Florida · Georgia · Hawaii · · Idaho Illinois Indiana · · Iowa · Kansas · · Kentucky Louisiana Maine · · · Maryland Massachusetts Michigan · · Minnesota · · Missouri Mississippi Montana · · Nebraska · Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York · Ohio · Oklahoma · · Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island · · Tennessee · Texas · · Utah Virginia Vermont · · · Washington West Virginia Wisconsin · · Wyoming
Coat of arms of the United States
Federal District of Washington, D.C. (District of Columbia)
Insular areas
· American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands · · Puerto Rico Virgin Islands ·
Outer islands
· Baker Island Howland Island Jarvis Island · · · Johnston Atoll Kingman Reef Midway Atoll · · · Navassa Island Palmyra Atoll Wake Island ·
[edit] Geography
! Main article for this section are: Geography of the United States
United States is the largest country in the world 3. Geographical situation is very different.
* There meadow East Coast,
* Appalachian Mountains
* Great Plains in the middle of this country,
* The Mississippi-Missouri,
* The Rocky Mountains in the west
The climate is different according to geographical conditions, from tropical (hot and dry in summer, warm in winter) in Florida to tundra (cold throughout the year) in Alaska. Most of this country has warm summers and cold winters. Some U.S. states, like California, has a Mediterranean climate.
[edit] Economy
! Main article for this section are: Economics United States
U.S. running a capitalist economic system. This country's economic growth on the surface of solid, low unemployment and inflation, and lower trade deficit (meaning the U.S. bought more goods from other countries rather than sold).
The U.S. economy is one of the most important in the world. Many countries have made the U.S. dollar as its currency measure, whether or not that is worth their currency is determined by the dollar. Some countries use the dollar as their currency. U.S. stock market was viewed as an indicator of world economy.
These countries have many mineral resources, like gold, oil, coal and uranium deposits. Agriculture makes this country are among the major producers, among others, maize, wheat, sugar and tobacco. U.S. production of cars, aircraft and electronic items. Approximately 3 / 4 of the U.S. population worked in service industries.
U.S. trading partners are:
* Canada
* Mexico
* European
* Asian industrial countries like Japan, Taiwan, India, South Korea and China.
Distance social structure of the United States, means that some Americans are rich enough. Even though there are also people who live below the poverty line. 51% of all households have a computer and 41% have Internet access in 2000, a figure that has grown to 75% in 2004. Furthermore, 67.9% of the population own their own home in 2002. American residents per capita income $ 37,000 a year in 2002.
[edit] Education
American public education is operated by the state and local governments, regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal funds. The children in most countries are required to attend school from age six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn eighteen (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some States allow students to left school at sixteen or seventeen. Approximately 12% of children enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Only about 2% of the children who learn at home. United States has a lot of private institutions and public higher education is competitive, and the local community college with an open policy. Of the American population over the age of twenty-five years, approximately 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% of them go to several universities, and approximately 27.2% obtained a degree, and 9.6% earn a bachelor's degree. Almost all the American people do not have an illiterate reach about 99% of the total. The United Nations gave the United States an Education index 0.97, which ranked 12th in the world.
[edit] Demographics
! Main article for this section: Demographics of the United States
Most of the population in the U.S. are descendants of European immigrants. Many people are descended from Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Italy.
In recent years, many Hispanics come from Mexico and other parts of Latin America, especially to the U.S. southwest. Many of those who crossed the border illegally. Some Americans felt hot, and also because of the use of Spanish in the United States (see Languages in the United States).
Many African-Americans. Most of them are descended from African slaves brought to the New World.
A third of the U.S. population is Asian-Americans. Most inhabit the west coast.
Original inhabitants, called Native Americans or Indians and Eskimos very little.
[edit] Religion
The number of Christians in the United States continues to decline. 86.2% call themselves Christian in 1990 and 76.5% call themselves Christian in 2001 (ARIS 2001). Members of religious Protestants in 2001 was 52%, Catholic 24.5%, 13.2% no, Judaism 1.3% and 0,5-0,3% Muslim, Buddhist, Agnostic, Atheist, Hindu and Unitarian Universalist. There is a big difference between those who embrace a religion and those who are members of the religious places. Census Bureau figures (PDF file) shows that the membership of places of worship in 2004 was 33% Protestant, Roman Catholic 19%, 4% 44% Jewish and other religions.
[edit] Culture
! Main article for this section are: United States Culture
The level of classified U.S. culture forward. This was proven with the progress of technology. United States with his friend the country Russia is a country that is a pioneer in the investigation and exploration of outer space, besides the United States is also an expert in the field of advanced weaponry.
In the field of modern literature, the United States has Ernest Hemingway, who had won the Nobel Prize in 1954.
[edit] Day a federal holiday
Name Date Notes
January 1 New Year's Day commemoration of the beginning of the year.
January, Monday the 3rd day Martin Luther King, Jr.. Honoring Dr. King, human rights leaders.
February, Monday the 3rd Day Honoring former President of U.S. presidents, especially Washington and Lincoln.
May, last Monday Memorial Day Honoring military men who died in duty.
July 4 Independence Day Celebrates Declaration of Independence; commonly called "The Fourth of July".
September, first Monday Labor Day Celebrates achievements of workers, and marks the traditional end of summer.
October, second Monday of Columbus Day Honoring Christopher Columbus, discoverer of America.
Veterans Day 11 November the traditional observation of the moment of silence at 11:00 hours commemorate those who fought for peace
November, Thursday 4th Thanksgiving Give thanks for autumn harvest, and marks the traditional beginning of "holiday season".
December 25 Christmas Day commemoration of the birth of Jesus, and is also celebrated as the winter holidays.
Senin, 27 September 2010
Sabtu, 27 Februari 2010
indonesia of indonesia
History of Indonesia covers a span of a very long time starting from prehistoric times by the discovery of "Java Man" which was 1.7 million years ago. Indonesian historical period can be divided into five age: pre-colonial era, the emergence of the kingdoms of Hindu-Buddhism and Islam in Java and Sumatra, which mainly relies on trade; Colonial Era, the entry of the Europeans (especially the Netherlands) who want the spices resulted in colonization by Netherlands for about 3.5 centuries between the early 17th century until the mid-20th century; Era of Independence First, the post-Independence Indonesia (1945) until the fall of Sukarno (1966) New Order era, 32 years of Suharto's reign (1966 -1998); and the Reform Era that lasted until now.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Prehistory
* 2 pre-colonial era
o initial 2.1
o 2.2 Hindu-Buddhist kingdom
o 2.3 Islamic Kingdom
* 3 Colonial Era
o 3.1 Portuguese colonization
Colonization of 3.2 o VOC
o 3.3 Colonization Dutch government
nationalism movement o 3.4
o 3.5 World War II
o 3.6 Occupation of Japan
* 4 Independence Era
Proclamation of Independence o 4.1
o 4.2 War of Independence
o 4.3 Parliamentary democracy
o Guided Democracy 4.4
o 4.5 Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
o 4.6 The fate of West Irian
o 4.7 The September 30th Movement
* 5 New Order Era
o 5.1 Irian Jaya
o 5.2 East Timor
o 5.3 The economic crisis
* 6 era of reform
The Habibie government o 6.1
Wahid Government o 6.2
Megawati Government o 6.3
o 6.4 Yudhoyono Government
* 7 See also
o 7.1 See also
o 7.2 Sources and further reading
o 7.3 External links
[edit] Prehistory
! Main article for this section are: Archipelago in the prehistoric period
In geology, modern Indonesian region (for convenience, hereinafter called Nusantara) is a meeting between the three major continental plates: Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate and Pacific Plate (see article Geological Indonesia). Indonesian archipelago, as there is currently formed at the melting of ice after the end of the Ice Age, only 10,000 years ago.
Replication of the human skull that Java was first discovered in Sangiran
In the Pleistocene period, when still connected to the Asian mainland, enter the first settlers. The first evidence that shows the first residents were the fossils of Homo erectus of Java from the men 2 million to 500,000 years ago. The discovery of the remains "Flores man" (Homo floresiensis) [1] in Liang Bua, Flores, opening the possibility of survival is still H. erectus until the last Ice Age. [2]
Homo sapiens first entered the archipelago is estimated from 100,000 years ago through the coastal strip of West Asia, Asia, and in about 50,000 years ago had reached the island of New Guinea and Australia. [3] They are, characterized by racial and dark curly hair tightly (Negroid ), a native ancestors Melanesia (including Papua) now and bring culture oval axes (Paleolitikum). A wave of Austronesian-speaking migrants to the Neolithic cultures to come in waves since 3000 BC from southern China through Formosa and the Philippines brought culture picks square (Dong Son culture). This migration process is part of the occupation of the Pacific. The arrival of waves of Mongoloid population is characterized by tending toward the west, earlier urged residents to the east or the spouse mix with the locals and the physical features of the population of Maluku and Nusa Tenggara. These immigrants brought with them agricultural techniques, including rice cultivation in paddy fields (at the latest evidence since the 8th century BC), raising water buffalo, bronze and metal processing, weaving techniques, practices megaliths, and the worship of spirits ( animism) and sacred objects (dynamism). In the first century BC had established settlements and small kingdoms, and is probably already in effect due to the belief of the Indian trade relations.
[edit] pre-colonial era
[edit] History of the early
See also: History of Nusantara
Indian scholars have written about or Dwipantara Dwipa Javanese Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC. Initial physical evidence is the date from the 5th century the two kingdoms patterned Hinduism: Kingdom of West Java Tarumanagara control and coastal Kutai Mahakam River, Borneo. In the 425 years of Buddhism had reached the area.
When Europe entered the Renaissance, Archipelago has had inherited thousands of years old civilizations with the two great kingdoms of Sriwijaya in Sumatra and Majapahit in Java, along with dozens of small kingdoms often vazal more powerful neighbors or connected to each other in a kind of bond trading ( such as in Maluku).
[edit] Hindu-Buddhist kingdom
! Main article: History of Nusantara in the era of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
Heritage monument inscription of King Purnawarman Taruma
In the 4th century until the 7th century in the West Java region is patterned kingdom of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that followed the Tarumanagara Sundanese kingdom until the 16th century. During the 7th century until the 14th century, the Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya flourished on Sumatra. China the I Ching explorers visited the capital of Palembang about 670 years. In his prime, Srivijaya controlled areas of West Java and as far as Malays Peninsula. The 14th century also witnessed the rise of a Hindu empire in East Java, Majapahit. Patih Majapahit between years 1331 to 1364, Gajah Mada, succeeded in obtaining power over what is now part of Indonesia and its magnitude is almost the entire peninsula Malays. Inherited from the Gajah Mada, including codifying the law and in Javanese culture, as seen in the epic Ramayana.
[edit] Islamic Kingdom
! Main article: History of Nusantara in the era of the Islamic empire
Islam as a government presence in Indonesia around the 12th century, but in fact Islam has already arrived in Indonesia on the 7th century AD. It was a busy shipping lane and the international nature through the Malacca Strait that connects the Tang Dynasty in China, the Srivijaya in Southeast Asia and the Umayyad dynasty in Western Asia since the 7th century. [4]
According to Chinese sources by the end of the third quarter of 7th century, an Arab trader to the Arab Muslim leader of the settlement on the coast of Sumatra. Islam also gives effect to the existing political institutions. This is apparent on Year 100 AH (718 AD) King of Sriwijaya named Jambi Srindravarman sent a letter to the Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate request sent preachers who could explain Islam to him. The letter read: "From the King of Kings who is the descendant of a thousand kings, whose wife was also the grandson of a thousand kings, who in the animal cages are a thousand elephants, who in his area there are two rivers that irrigate the gaharu tree, perfumed spices, nutmeg and lime the fragrant scented balls to reach a distance of 12 miles, to the Arab King who did not associate other gods with God. I have sent to you gift, which is actually a gift that not too much, but just a sign of friendship. I want you to send me someone who can teach Islam to me and tell me about its laws. "Two years later, the year 720 AD, King Srindravarman, originally a Hindu, converted to Islam. Sriwijaya Jambi also known by the name 'Sribuza Islam'. Unfortunately, in the year 730 AD captured by Jambi Sriwijaya Sriwijaya Palembang still embrace Buddhism. [5]
Islam continues to be mengokoh political institutions that carry Islam. For example, an Islamic sultanate called Sultanate Peureulak established on 1 Muharram 225 H or 12 November 839 AD Another example is the kingdom of Ternate. Islam entered the kingdom in the Maluku islands in 1440. King, a Muslim named Bayanullah.
Islamic Sultanate then semikin disseminate his teachings to the people and through assimilation, replacing the Hindu as the main beliefs in the late 16th century in Java and Sumatra. Only Balinese Hindu majority maintained. On the island in the east, spiritual, Christian and Islamic spiritual leaders known to have active in the 16th century and 17, and now there is a large majority of both religions on the island.
The spread of Islam carried out through trade relations outside the archipelago; this case, because the propagator or the preachers are preaching from the Islamic government delegates who came from outside Indonesia, then to feed themselves and their families, the preachers of this work through trade, the preachers to spread the program Islam to the merchants of the natives, until the merchants are embracing Islam and also transmit to other people, because most traders and experts was the first kingdom to adopt the new religion. Important Islamic empire including: Royal Ocean Pasai, Banten Sultanate of full diplomatic relations with European countries, the Kingdom of Mataram, and the Sultanate and the Sultanate of Ternate in the Moluccas Tidore.
[edit] Colonial Era
[edit] Portuguese colonization
! Main article: History of Nusantara # Zaman_Portugis
[edit] Colonization of the VOC
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era VOC
Beginning in 1602 the Netherlands gradually became ruler of the area is now Indonesia, to take advantage of divisions among the small kingdoms that had replaced Majapahit. The only thing that is not affected is of Portuguese Timor, which remained occupied until 1975 when Portugal became a province of Indonesia to integrate the name of East Timor. Dutch controlled Indonesia for nearly 350 years, except for a short period in which a small part of Indonesia after the war the British controlled Anglo-Dutch Java and the Japanese occupation during World War II. When Indonesia invaded the Dutch East Indies Dutch developed into one of the richest colonial power in the world. 350 years of Dutch colonialism for some people is a myth because the new Aceh after the Dutch conquered then approached bankruptcy.
Logo VOC
In the 17th century and the Dutch East Indies 18 are not controlled directly by the Dutch government but by a trading company called the Dutch East Indies Company (Dutch: Verenigde East India Company or VOC). VOC has been given monopoly rights to trade and colonial activities in the area by the Dutch Parliament in 1602. Headquarters are in Batavia, now Jakarta.
The main goal is to maintain the VOC monopoly of the spice trade in the archipelago. This is done through the use and threat of violence against the population of island spice, and of those non-Dutch people who tried to trade with these residents. For example, when the population of the Banda islands continue to sell to traders nutmeg English, Dutch troops to kill or deport almost the entire population and then populating the islands with the servants or slaves who worked in the nutmeg plantations.
VOC became involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in several wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten.
[edit] Colonization of the Dutch government
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Dutch Era
After the VOC went bankrupt in the late 18th century and after a short British rule under Thomas Stamford Raffles, the Dutch government took over ownership of the Company in the year 1816. A rebellion in Java successfully suppressed in the Java War in 1825-1830. After 1830 years of the compulsory system, known as cultuurstelsel in the Dutch language were adopted. In this system, the residents were forced to plant the results of the plantation world market demand at that time, such as tea, coffee etc.. The results of the plant and then exported to foreign countries. These systems bring great wealth to the executive - both the Dutch and Indonesia. This cultivation system is a government monopoly and was abolished during the more free after 1870.
In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy (Dutch: Ethische Politiek), which included greater investment in education for indigenous people, and little political change. Under the governor-general of J.B. van Heutsz Dutch East Indies government extending direct colonial rule throughout the Dutch East Indies, and thereby establish the foundation for Indonesia's current state.
[edit] Movement of nationalism
In 1905 the first nationalist movement, the Islamic Trade Unions was formed and was followed in 1908 by following the nationalist movement, Budi Utomo. Holland responded that after World War I by the steps of oppression. Nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom have been educated in the Netherlands. Many of them are imprisoned for political activities, including Indonesia's first president, Sukarno.
[edit] World War II
In May 1940, the beginning of World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. Dutch East Indies declared a state of alert and on July divert exports to Japan to the United States and Britain. Negotiations with Japan which aims to secure the supply of aircraft fuel failed in June 1941, and the Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia launch in December of that year. In the same month, factions from Sumatra to accept Japanese assistance to bring about a revolution against the Dutch government. The last Dutch forces were defeated Japan in March 1942.
[edit] Japanese Occupation
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Japan Era
In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan to hold a public campaign and form a government that can provide answers to the needs of the Japanese military. Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and the Kyai decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, the experience of Japanese control in Indonesia vary widely, depending where one lives and the social status of the person. For those who live in areas that are considered important in the war, they experienced torture, sexual slavery involved, any arrests and executions, and other war crimes. The Dutch and Dutch-Indonesian mixture is a target in the mastery of Japanese.
In March 1945, the Japanese form of the Investigating Committee of Indonesian Independence Preparation Business (BPUPKI). At the first meeting in May, Soepomo discuss national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new state and also claimed Sarawak, Sabah, Malaya, Portuguese East, and throughout the Dutch East Indies before the war.
On August 9, 1945 Sukarno, Hatta and Radjiman Widjodiningrat flown to Vietnam to meet Marshal Terauchi. They reported that Japanese troops were to destruction but the Japanese wanted the independence of Indonesia on August 24.
[edit] Era of Independence
[edit] Proclamation of Independence
! Main article for this section are: Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
Hearing the news that Japan no longer has the power to make such a decision on August 16, Sukarno read the "Proclamation" on the next day. The news of the proclamation of spread by radio and leaflets while the Indonesian military forces in time of war, Homeland Defense Forces (PETA), the youth, and others took off to maintain the residence of Sukarno.
On August 18, 1945 The Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) inaugurated as President Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta as Vice President with a constitution that was designed a few days earlier. Later formed the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) as a temporary parliament until elections can be held. This group declared a new government on August 31, and wants the Republic of Indonesia, which consists of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo (excluding Sabah region, Sarawak and Brunei), West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku (including Papua) and East Nusa Southeast.
[edit] War of Independence
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era 1945-1949
Text Proclamation
From 1945 to 1949, Australian maritime union who sympathize with the efforts for independence, banned all Dutch shipping during this conflict that the Dutch did not have the logistical support and supplies necessary to reshape the colonial power.
Dutch efforts to regain control faced strong opposition. After returning to Java, Dutch forces recaptured once the colonial capital of Batavia, as a result of the nationalists as the capital of Jogjakarta making them. On December 27, 1949 (see article on December 27, 1949), after 4 years of war and negotiation, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the Federal Government of Indonesia. In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the UN.
See also The National Revolution, 1945-50 for more information (in English).
[edit] Parliamentary democracy
Not long after that, Indonesia adopted a new law that consists of the parliamentary system in which the executive council elected by and responsible to the Parliament or the Assembly. Assembly divided the political parties before and after the first election in 1955, so that a stable coalition government difficult to achieve.
The role of Islam in Indonesia is a complex thing. Sukarno would prefer a secular state based on Pancasila, while some Muslim groups want a more Islamic state or the law contains a section of Muslims menyaratkan subject to Parliamentary Islam.Demokrasi law, is a democracy that puts the position of a higher legislative body of the executive . Head of government headed by a Prime Minister. Prime ministers and ministers in the cabinet appointed and dismissed by the parliament. In a parliamentary democracy President served as head of state.
[edit] Guided Democracy
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Guided Democracy Era
A failed uprising in Sumatra, Sulawesi, West Java and other islands, which started since 1958, plus the failure of the Assembly to develop a new constitution, weakened the parliamentary system of Indonesia. Result in 1959 when President Soekarno unilaterally revived the 1945 constitution as temporary, which provides a great presidential power, he did not encounter many obstacles.
From 1959 to 1965, President Sukarno ruled in an authoritarian regime under the label of "Guided Democracy". He also moved Indonesia's foreign policy toward the non-aligned, supported the policy of the prominent leaders of former colonies who rejected formal alliances with the Western bloc and the Soviet bloc. The leaders gathered in Bandung, West Java in 1955 in the Asian-African Summit to establish a foundation that would become the Non-Aligned Movement.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Sukarno moved closer to the communist countries of Asia and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in the country. Although PKI is the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union and China, its mass support never showed obedience to the Communist Party's ideological as in other countries.
[edit] Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
Sukarno opposed the formation of the Federation of Malaysia and mention that it is a "neo-colonial plan" to ease the British commercial plans in the region. In addition to the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, this would be imperialism expand the influence of Western countries in Asia and provides a gap to the UK and Australia to influence the regional politics of Asia. Responding to the UN's decision to recognize the sovereignty of Malaysia and Malaysia to make non-permanent UN Security Council, President Sukarno declared Indonesia's resignation from the membership of the United Nations on January 20, 1965 and founded the New Power Conference (CONEFO) as the counter as the UN and GANEFO Olympic games. In this confrontation that later resulted in the battle between the forces of Indonesia and Malaysia (which is assisted by the British).
[edit] The fate of West Irian
! Main article for this section are: West Papua Conflict
At the time of independence, the Dutch government to maintain control of the western island of New Guinea (Papua), and allowing the steps toward self-government and declaring independence on December 1, 1961.
Negotiations with the Dutch about the merger with the Indonesian region failed, and the Indonesian army paratroopers landed in New Guinea on December 18 before then a battle between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressed the Dutch to agree to conduct secret talks with Indonesia, which produces the New York Agreement in August 1962, and Indonesia took control of Irian Jaya on May 1, 1963.
[edit] September 30 Movement
! Main article for this section are: The September 30th Movement
Until 1965, the PKI had mastered many of the mass organizations formed by Sukarno to strengthen support for his regime and, with the approval of Sukarno, began a campaign to form the "Fifth Generation" by arming its supporters. Military leaders opposed this.
On 30 September 1965, six senior generals and some other people were killed in a coup attempt blamed on the guards loyal to the PKI. Commander of the Army Strategic Command at the time, Major General Suharto, crushed the coup and turned against the PKI. Suharto then use this situation to take over power. More than tens of thousands of people accused of communist and then killed. Number of deaths in 1966 to reach at least 500,000; the worst occurred in Java and Bali.
[edit] New Order Era
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: New Order Era
After Suharto became president, the first one he did was enroll Indonesia became a member of the UN again. Indonesia on 19 September 1966 announced that Indonesia is "intended to continue cooperation with the United Nations and continued participation in UN activities", and became a member of the United Nations back on September 28, 1966, exactly 16 years after the first time that Indonesia received.
In 1968, the Assembly was officially inaugurated Suharto to 5-year term as president, and he was then sworn in again in a row in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.
President Soeharto began his "New Order" in Indonesian politics and dramatically change the foreign policy and domestic from the way in which Sukarno in the late term of office. New Order chose repair and economic development as its main purpose, and travel policies through an administrative structure dominated by the military but with advice from Western-trained economists. During his reign, these policies, and the exploitation of natural resources on a large scale to produce significant economic growth but not evenly distributed in Indonesia. For example, the number of hungry people reduced to the magnitude of the 1970s and 1980s. He also enrich himself, his family, and co-sticking close by rampant corruption.
[edit] Irian Jaya
After refusing the supervision of the UN, the Indonesian government implemented "Act of Free Choice" (Free Options for Action) in Irian Jaya in 1969 where 1025 representatives of the regional heads of Irian selected and then given training in the Indonesian language. They are consensus finally chose to join Indonesia. A UN General Assembly resolutions and ensure transfer of power to Indonesia. Rejection of Indonesian rule led to the activities of small-scale guerrilla warfare in the following years after the transfer of power. In a more open atmosphere after 1998, the statements more explicit who want independence from Indonesia has emerged.
[edit] East Timor
From 1596 to 1975, East Timor was a Portuguese colony on the island of Timor, known as Portuguese Timor and separated from the north coast of Australia by the Timor Sea. As a result of political events in Portugal, Portugal officials abruptly withdrew from East Timor in 1975. In local elections in 1975, Fretilin, the party that led in part by people who bring understanding of Marxism, and UDT, the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal.
On December 7, 1975, Indonesian troops entered East Timor. Indonesia, which has a material and diplomatic support, aided equipment supplied weapons the United States and Australia, hoping to have their East Timor will receive additional oil and natural gas, and strategic location.
In the early days, the Indonesian military (ABRI) kills nearly 200,000 people of East Timor - through murder, forced starvation and others. Many serious human rights violations during East Timor within Indonesia territory.
On August 30, 1999, the East Timorese vote for separation from Indonesia in a vote of the UN held. Approximately 99% of the electorate participated; 3/4-nya vote for independence. Immediately after the result was announced, it was said that the Indonesian military to continue the destruction in East Timor, such as damage to infrastructure in the area.
In October 1999, the Assembly canceled a 1976 decree integrating East Timor into Indonesian territory, and the United Nations Transitional Authority (UNTAET) took over responsibility for governing East Timor so that full independence was reached in May 2002 as the nation of East Timor.
[edit] The economic crisis
Suharto announced his resignation was accompanied by BJ Habibie.
In mid 1997, Indonesia was attacked the financial crisis and the Asian economies (for details see: the Asian financial crisis), accompanied by the worst drought in 50 years and the price of oil, gas and other export commodities are increasingly falling. Rupiah falls, inflation rose sharply, and capital movement accelerated. The demonstrators, who initially led the students, asking for the resignation of Suharto. In the midst of mass turmoil the widespread anger, as well as thousands of students who occupied the Parliament House, Suharto resigned on May 21, 1998, three months after the Assembly for the service melantiknya seventh. Suharto then choose the Vice-President, B. J. Habibie, to become the third president of Indonesia.
[edit] Era reform
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era of Reform
[edit] The Habibie government
President Habibie immediately form a Cabinet. One important task is to regain support from the International Monetary Fund and the community of donor countries for the economic recovery program. He also frees political prisoners and reduce controls on freedom of expression and activities of the organization.
[edit] Government Wahid
Elections for the Assembly, the Parliament, and Parliament was held on June 7, 1999. Struggle PDI leader Sukarno's daughter, Megawati Sukarnoputri came out a winner in the parliamentary election by obtaining 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party - had always been a winner the previous elections) have 22%; the United Development Party leader Hamzah Haz 12%; Party Awakening leader Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur) 10%. In October 1999, the Assembly inaugurated as president Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati as vice president for a period of 5 years service. Wahid formed his first cabinet, the National Unity Cabinet in early November 1999 and to reshuffle his cabinet in August 2000.
President Wahid's administration to continue the process of democratization and economic development under challenging circumstances. In addition to the economic uncertainty continues, the government also faced conflicts between ethnic and inter-religious, especially in Aceh, Maluku, and Papua. In West Timor, the problems caused the East Timorese people who do not have a place to live and disorder committed by the militants of East Timorese pro-Indonesia cause humanitarian problems and greater social. Assembly is increasingly put pressure on policy challenge President Wahid, causing political debate overwhelming.
[edit] Government of Megawati
At the first General Session in August 2000, President Wahid gave the answer for reports. On January 29, 2001, thousands of demonstrators stormed the Assembly and requested the President to resign on the grounds of involvement in a corruption scandal. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve the management and coordination in the government, he passed a presidential decree giving the state power daily to Vice President Megawati. Megawati took over as president soon after.
[edit] Government Yudhoyono
In 2004, the largest one-day election in the world held and Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono appears as the new president of Indonesia. The new government at the beginning of his tenure has received numerous trials and challenges, such as major earthquakes in Aceh and Nias in December 2004 that meluluh lantakkan part of Aceh and other earthquakes in early 2005 that shook Sumatra.
On July 17, 2005, an historic agreement was reached between the Indonesian government and Free Aceh Movement which aims to end the prolonged conflict for 30 years in the region of Aceh.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Prehistory
* 2 pre-colonial era
o initial 2.1
o 2.2 Hindu-Buddhist kingdom
o 2.3 Islamic Kingdom
* 3 Colonial Era
o 3.1 Portuguese colonization
Colonization of 3.2 o VOC
o 3.3 Colonization Dutch government
nationalism movement o 3.4
o 3.5 World War II
o 3.6 Occupation of Japan
* 4 Independence Era
Proclamation of Independence o 4.1
o 4.2 War of Independence
o 4.3 Parliamentary democracy
o Guided Democracy 4.4
o 4.5 Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
o 4.6 The fate of West Irian
o 4.7 The September 30th Movement
* 5 New Order Era
o 5.1 Irian Jaya
o 5.2 East Timor
o 5.3 The economic crisis
* 6 era of reform
The Habibie government o 6.1
Wahid Government o 6.2
Megawati Government o 6.3
o 6.4 Yudhoyono Government
* 7 See also
o 7.1 See also
o 7.2 Sources and further reading
o 7.3 External links
[edit] Prehistory
! Main article for this section are: Archipelago in the prehistoric period
In geology, modern Indonesian region (for convenience, hereinafter called Nusantara) is a meeting between the three major continental plates: Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate and Pacific Plate (see article Geological Indonesia). Indonesian archipelago, as there is currently formed at the melting of ice after the end of the Ice Age, only 10,000 years ago.
Replication of the human skull that Java was first discovered in Sangiran
In the Pleistocene period, when still connected to the Asian mainland, enter the first settlers. The first evidence that shows the first residents were the fossils of Homo erectus of Java from the men 2 million to 500,000 years ago. The discovery of the remains "Flores man" (Homo floresiensis) [1] in Liang Bua, Flores, opening the possibility of survival is still H. erectus until the last Ice Age. [2]
Homo sapiens first entered the archipelago is estimated from 100,000 years ago through the coastal strip of West Asia, Asia, and in about 50,000 years ago had reached the island of New Guinea and Australia. [3] They are, characterized by racial and dark curly hair tightly (Negroid ), a native ancestors Melanesia (including Papua) now and bring culture oval axes (Paleolitikum). A wave of Austronesian-speaking migrants to the Neolithic cultures to come in waves since 3000 BC from southern China through Formosa and the Philippines brought culture picks square (Dong Son culture). This migration process is part of the occupation of the Pacific. The arrival of waves of Mongoloid population is characterized by tending toward the west, earlier urged residents to the east or the spouse mix with the locals and the physical features of the population of Maluku and Nusa Tenggara. These immigrants brought with them agricultural techniques, including rice cultivation in paddy fields (at the latest evidence since the 8th century BC), raising water buffalo, bronze and metal processing, weaving techniques, practices megaliths, and the worship of spirits ( animism) and sacred objects (dynamism). In the first century BC had established settlements and small kingdoms, and is probably already in effect due to the belief of the Indian trade relations.
[edit] pre-colonial era
[edit] History of the early
See also: History of Nusantara
Indian scholars have written about or Dwipantara Dwipa Javanese Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC. Initial physical evidence is the date from the 5th century the two kingdoms patterned Hinduism: Kingdom of West Java Tarumanagara control and coastal Kutai Mahakam River, Borneo. In the 425 years of Buddhism had reached the area.
When Europe entered the Renaissance, Archipelago has had inherited thousands of years old civilizations with the two great kingdoms of Sriwijaya in Sumatra and Majapahit in Java, along with dozens of small kingdoms often vazal more powerful neighbors or connected to each other in a kind of bond trading ( such as in Maluku).
[edit] Hindu-Buddhist kingdom
! Main article: History of Nusantara in the era of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
Heritage monument inscription of King Purnawarman Taruma
In the 4th century until the 7th century in the West Java region is patterned kingdom of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that followed the Tarumanagara Sundanese kingdom until the 16th century. During the 7th century until the 14th century, the Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya flourished on Sumatra. China the I Ching explorers visited the capital of Palembang about 670 years. In his prime, Srivijaya controlled areas of West Java and as far as Malays Peninsula. The 14th century also witnessed the rise of a Hindu empire in East Java, Majapahit. Patih Majapahit between years 1331 to 1364, Gajah Mada, succeeded in obtaining power over what is now part of Indonesia and its magnitude is almost the entire peninsula Malays. Inherited from the Gajah Mada, including codifying the law and in Javanese culture, as seen in the epic Ramayana.
[edit] Islamic Kingdom
! Main article: History of Nusantara in the era of the Islamic empire
Islam as a government presence in Indonesia around the 12th century, but in fact Islam has already arrived in Indonesia on the 7th century AD. It was a busy shipping lane and the international nature through the Malacca Strait that connects the Tang Dynasty in China, the Srivijaya in Southeast Asia and the Umayyad dynasty in Western Asia since the 7th century. [4]
According to Chinese sources by the end of the third quarter of 7th century, an Arab trader to the Arab Muslim leader of the settlement on the coast of Sumatra. Islam also gives effect to the existing political institutions. This is apparent on Year 100 AH (718 AD) King of Sriwijaya named Jambi Srindravarman sent a letter to the Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate request sent preachers who could explain Islam to him. The letter read: "From the King of Kings who is the descendant of a thousand kings, whose wife was also the grandson of a thousand kings, who in the animal cages are a thousand elephants, who in his area there are two rivers that irrigate the gaharu tree, perfumed spices, nutmeg and lime the fragrant scented balls to reach a distance of 12 miles, to the Arab King who did not associate other gods with God. I have sent to you gift, which is actually a gift that not too much, but just a sign of friendship. I want you to send me someone who can teach Islam to me and tell me about its laws. "Two years later, the year 720 AD, King Srindravarman, originally a Hindu, converted to Islam. Sriwijaya Jambi also known by the name 'Sribuza Islam'. Unfortunately, in the year 730 AD captured by Jambi Sriwijaya Sriwijaya Palembang still embrace Buddhism. [5]
Islam continues to be mengokoh political institutions that carry Islam. For example, an Islamic sultanate called Sultanate Peureulak established on 1 Muharram 225 H or 12 November 839 AD Another example is the kingdom of Ternate. Islam entered the kingdom in the Maluku islands in 1440. King, a Muslim named Bayanullah.
Islamic Sultanate then semikin disseminate his teachings to the people and through assimilation, replacing the Hindu as the main beliefs in the late 16th century in Java and Sumatra. Only Balinese Hindu majority maintained. On the island in the east, spiritual, Christian and Islamic spiritual leaders known to have active in the 16th century and 17, and now there is a large majority of both religions on the island.
The spread of Islam carried out through trade relations outside the archipelago; this case, because the propagator or the preachers are preaching from the Islamic government delegates who came from outside Indonesia, then to feed themselves and their families, the preachers of this work through trade, the preachers to spread the program Islam to the merchants of the natives, until the merchants are embracing Islam and also transmit to other people, because most traders and experts was the first kingdom to adopt the new religion. Important Islamic empire including: Royal Ocean Pasai, Banten Sultanate of full diplomatic relations with European countries, the Kingdom of Mataram, and the Sultanate and the Sultanate of Ternate in the Moluccas Tidore.
[edit] Colonial Era
[edit] Portuguese colonization
! Main article: History of Nusantara # Zaman_Portugis
[edit] Colonization of the VOC
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era VOC
Beginning in 1602 the Netherlands gradually became ruler of the area is now Indonesia, to take advantage of divisions among the small kingdoms that had replaced Majapahit. The only thing that is not affected is of Portuguese Timor, which remained occupied until 1975 when Portugal became a province of Indonesia to integrate the name of East Timor. Dutch controlled Indonesia for nearly 350 years, except for a short period in which a small part of Indonesia after the war the British controlled Anglo-Dutch Java and the Japanese occupation during World War II. When Indonesia invaded the Dutch East Indies Dutch developed into one of the richest colonial power in the world. 350 years of Dutch colonialism for some people is a myth because the new Aceh after the Dutch conquered then approached bankruptcy.
Logo VOC
In the 17th century and the Dutch East Indies 18 are not controlled directly by the Dutch government but by a trading company called the Dutch East Indies Company (Dutch: Verenigde East India Company or VOC). VOC has been given monopoly rights to trade and colonial activities in the area by the Dutch Parliament in 1602. Headquarters are in Batavia, now Jakarta.
The main goal is to maintain the VOC monopoly of the spice trade in the archipelago. This is done through the use and threat of violence against the population of island spice, and of those non-Dutch people who tried to trade with these residents. For example, when the population of the Banda islands continue to sell to traders nutmeg English, Dutch troops to kill or deport almost the entire population and then populating the islands with the servants or slaves who worked in the nutmeg plantations.
VOC became involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in several wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten.
[edit] Colonization of the Dutch government
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Dutch Era
After the VOC went bankrupt in the late 18th century and after a short British rule under Thomas Stamford Raffles, the Dutch government took over ownership of the Company in the year 1816. A rebellion in Java successfully suppressed in the Java War in 1825-1830. After 1830 years of the compulsory system, known as cultuurstelsel in the Dutch language were adopted. In this system, the residents were forced to plant the results of the plantation world market demand at that time, such as tea, coffee etc.. The results of the plant and then exported to foreign countries. These systems bring great wealth to the executive - both the Dutch and Indonesia. This cultivation system is a government monopoly and was abolished during the more free after 1870.
In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy (Dutch: Ethische Politiek), which included greater investment in education for indigenous people, and little political change. Under the governor-general of J.B. van Heutsz Dutch East Indies government extending direct colonial rule throughout the Dutch East Indies, and thereby establish the foundation for Indonesia's current state.
[edit] Movement of nationalism
In 1905 the first nationalist movement, the Islamic Trade Unions was formed and was followed in 1908 by following the nationalist movement, Budi Utomo. Holland responded that after World War I by the steps of oppression. Nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom have been educated in the Netherlands. Many of them are imprisoned for political activities, including Indonesia's first president, Sukarno.
[edit] World War II
In May 1940, the beginning of World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. Dutch East Indies declared a state of alert and on July divert exports to Japan to the United States and Britain. Negotiations with Japan which aims to secure the supply of aircraft fuel failed in June 1941, and the Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia launch in December of that year. In the same month, factions from Sumatra to accept Japanese assistance to bring about a revolution against the Dutch government. The last Dutch forces were defeated Japan in March 1942.
[edit] Japanese Occupation
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Japan Era
In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan to hold a public campaign and form a government that can provide answers to the needs of the Japanese military. Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and the Kyai decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, the experience of Japanese control in Indonesia vary widely, depending where one lives and the social status of the person. For those who live in areas that are considered important in the war, they experienced torture, sexual slavery involved, any arrests and executions, and other war crimes. The Dutch and Dutch-Indonesian mixture is a target in the mastery of Japanese.
In March 1945, the Japanese form of the Investigating Committee of Indonesian Independence Preparation Business (BPUPKI). At the first meeting in May, Soepomo discuss national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new state and also claimed Sarawak, Sabah, Malaya, Portuguese East, and throughout the Dutch East Indies before the war.
On August 9, 1945 Sukarno, Hatta and Radjiman Widjodiningrat flown to Vietnam to meet Marshal Terauchi. They reported that Japanese troops were to destruction but the Japanese wanted the independence of Indonesia on August 24.
[edit] Era of Independence
[edit] Proclamation of Independence
! Main article for this section are: Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
Hearing the news that Japan no longer has the power to make such a decision on August 16, Sukarno read the "Proclamation" on the next day. The news of the proclamation of spread by radio and leaflets while the Indonesian military forces in time of war, Homeland Defense Forces (PETA), the youth, and others took off to maintain the residence of Sukarno.
On August 18, 1945 The Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) inaugurated as President Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta as Vice President with a constitution that was designed a few days earlier. Later formed the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) as a temporary parliament until elections can be held. This group declared a new government on August 31, and wants the Republic of Indonesia, which consists of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo (excluding Sabah region, Sarawak and Brunei), West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku (including Papua) and East Nusa Southeast.
[edit] War of Independence
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era 1945-1949
Text Proclamation
From 1945 to 1949, Australian maritime union who sympathize with the efforts for independence, banned all Dutch shipping during this conflict that the Dutch did not have the logistical support and supplies necessary to reshape the colonial power.
Dutch efforts to regain control faced strong opposition. After returning to Java, Dutch forces recaptured once the colonial capital of Batavia, as a result of the nationalists as the capital of Jogjakarta making them. On December 27, 1949 (see article on December 27, 1949), after 4 years of war and negotiation, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the Federal Government of Indonesia. In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the UN.
See also The National Revolution, 1945-50 for more information (in English).
[edit] Parliamentary democracy
Not long after that, Indonesia adopted a new law that consists of the parliamentary system in which the executive council elected by and responsible to the Parliament or the Assembly. Assembly divided the political parties before and after the first election in 1955, so that a stable coalition government difficult to achieve.
The role of Islam in Indonesia is a complex thing. Sukarno would prefer a secular state based on Pancasila, while some Muslim groups want a more Islamic state or the law contains a section of Muslims menyaratkan subject to Parliamentary Islam.Demokrasi law, is a democracy that puts the position of a higher legislative body of the executive . Head of government headed by a Prime Minister. Prime ministers and ministers in the cabinet appointed and dismissed by the parliament. In a parliamentary democracy President served as head of state.
[edit] Guided Democracy
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Guided Democracy Era
A failed uprising in Sumatra, Sulawesi, West Java and other islands, which started since 1958, plus the failure of the Assembly to develop a new constitution, weakened the parliamentary system of Indonesia. Result in 1959 when President Soekarno unilaterally revived the 1945 constitution as temporary, which provides a great presidential power, he did not encounter many obstacles.
From 1959 to 1965, President Sukarno ruled in an authoritarian regime under the label of "Guided Democracy". He also moved Indonesia's foreign policy toward the non-aligned, supported the policy of the prominent leaders of former colonies who rejected formal alliances with the Western bloc and the Soviet bloc. The leaders gathered in Bandung, West Java in 1955 in the Asian-African Summit to establish a foundation that would become the Non-Aligned Movement.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Sukarno moved closer to the communist countries of Asia and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in the country. Although PKI is the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union and China, its mass support never showed obedience to the Communist Party's ideological as in other countries.
[edit] Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation
Sukarno opposed the formation of the Federation of Malaysia and mention that it is a "neo-colonial plan" to ease the British commercial plans in the region. In addition to the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, this would be imperialism expand the influence of Western countries in Asia and provides a gap to the UK and Australia to influence the regional politics of Asia. Responding to the UN's decision to recognize the sovereignty of Malaysia and Malaysia to make non-permanent UN Security Council, President Sukarno declared Indonesia's resignation from the membership of the United Nations on January 20, 1965 and founded the New Power Conference (CONEFO) as the counter as the UN and GANEFO Olympic games. In this confrontation that later resulted in the battle between the forces of Indonesia and Malaysia (which is assisted by the British).
[edit] The fate of West Irian
! Main article for this section are: West Papua Conflict
At the time of independence, the Dutch government to maintain control of the western island of New Guinea (Papua), and allowing the steps toward self-government and declaring independence on December 1, 1961.
Negotiations with the Dutch about the merger with the Indonesian region failed, and the Indonesian army paratroopers landed in New Guinea on December 18 before then a battle between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressed the Dutch to agree to conduct secret talks with Indonesia, which produces the New York Agreement in August 1962, and Indonesia took control of Irian Jaya on May 1, 1963.
[edit] September 30 Movement
! Main article for this section are: The September 30th Movement
Until 1965, the PKI had mastered many of the mass organizations formed by Sukarno to strengthen support for his regime and, with the approval of Sukarno, began a campaign to form the "Fifth Generation" by arming its supporters. Military leaders opposed this.
On 30 September 1965, six senior generals and some other people were killed in a coup attempt blamed on the guards loyal to the PKI. Commander of the Army Strategic Command at the time, Major General Suharto, crushed the coup and turned against the PKI. Suharto then use this situation to take over power. More than tens of thousands of people accused of communist and then killed. Number of deaths in 1966 to reach at least 500,000; the worst occurred in Java and Bali.
[edit] New Order Era
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: New Order Era
After Suharto became president, the first one he did was enroll Indonesia became a member of the UN again. Indonesia on 19 September 1966 announced that Indonesia is "intended to continue cooperation with the United Nations and continued participation in UN activities", and became a member of the United Nations back on September 28, 1966, exactly 16 years after the first time that Indonesia received.
In 1968, the Assembly was officially inaugurated Suharto to 5-year term as president, and he was then sworn in again in a row in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.
President Soeharto began his "New Order" in Indonesian politics and dramatically change the foreign policy and domestic from the way in which Sukarno in the late term of office. New Order chose repair and economic development as its main purpose, and travel policies through an administrative structure dominated by the military but with advice from Western-trained economists. During his reign, these policies, and the exploitation of natural resources on a large scale to produce significant economic growth but not evenly distributed in Indonesia. For example, the number of hungry people reduced to the magnitude of the 1970s and 1980s. He also enrich himself, his family, and co-sticking close by rampant corruption.
[edit] Irian Jaya
After refusing the supervision of the UN, the Indonesian government implemented "Act of Free Choice" (Free Options for Action) in Irian Jaya in 1969 where 1025 representatives of the regional heads of Irian selected and then given training in the Indonesian language. They are consensus finally chose to join Indonesia. A UN General Assembly resolutions and ensure transfer of power to Indonesia. Rejection of Indonesian rule led to the activities of small-scale guerrilla warfare in the following years after the transfer of power. In a more open atmosphere after 1998, the statements more explicit who want independence from Indonesia has emerged.
[edit] East Timor
From 1596 to 1975, East Timor was a Portuguese colony on the island of Timor, known as Portuguese Timor and separated from the north coast of Australia by the Timor Sea. As a result of political events in Portugal, Portugal officials abruptly withdrew from East Timor in 1975. In local elections in 1975, Fretilin, the party that led in part by people who bring understanding of Marxism, and UDT, the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal.
On December 7, 1975, Indonesian troops entered East Timor. Indonesia, which has a material and diplomatic support, aided equipment supplied weapons the United States and Australia, hoping to have their East Timor will receive additional oil and natural gas, and strategic location.
In the early days, the Indonesian military (ABRI) kills nearly 200,000 people of East Timor - through murder, forced starvation and others. Many serious human rights violations during East Timor within Indonesia territory.
On August 30, 1999, the East Timorese vote for separation from Indonesia in a vote of the UN held. Approximately 99% of the electorate participated; 3/4-nya vote for independence. Immediately after the result was announced, it was said that the Indonesian military to continue the destruction in East Timor, such as damage to infrastructure in the area.
In October 1999, the Assembly canceled a 1976 decree integrating East Timor into Indonesian territory, and the United Nations Transitional Authority (UNTAET) took over responsibility for governing East Timor so that full independence was reached in May 2002 as the nation of East Timor.
[edit] The economic crisis
Suharto announced his resignation was accompanied by BJ Habibie.
In mid 1997, Indonesia was attacked the financial crisis and the Asian economies (for details see: the Asian financial crisis), accompanied by the worst drought in 50 years and the price of oil, gas and other export commodities are increasingly falling. Rupiah falls, inflation rose sharply, and capital movement accelerated. The demonstrators, who initially led the students, asking for the resignation of Suharto. In the midst of mass turmoil the widespread anger, as well as thousands of students who occupied the Parliament House, Suharto resigned on May 21, 1998, three months after the Assembly for the service melantiknya seventh. Suharto then choose the Vice-President, B. J. Habibie, to become the third president of Indonesia.
[edit] Era reform
! Main article for this section are: Indonesia: Era of Reform
[edit] The Habibie government
President Habibie immediately form a Cabinet. One important task is to regain support from the International Monetary Fund and the community of donor countries for the economic recovery program. He also frees political prisoners and reduce controls on freedom of expression and activities of the organization.
[edit] Government Wahid
Elections for the Assembly, the Parliament, and Parliament was held on June 7, 1999. Struggle PDI leader Sukarno's daughter, Megawati Sukarnoputri came out a winner in the parliamentary election by obtaining 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party - had always been a winner the previous elections) have 22%; the United Development Party leader Hamzah Haz 12%; Party Awakening leader Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur) 10%. In October 1999, the Assembly inaugurated as president Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati as vice president for a period of 5 years service. Wahid formed his first cabinet, the National Unity Cabinet in early November 1999 and to reshuffle his cabinet in August 2000.
President Wahid's administration to continue the process of democratization and economic development under challenging circumstances. In addition to the economic uncertainty continues, the government also faced conflicts between ethnic and inter-religious, especially in Aceh, Maluku, and Papua. In West Timor, the problems caused the East Timorese people who do not have a place to live and disorder committed by the militants of East Timorese pro-Indonesia cause humanitarian problems and greater social. Assembly is increasingly put pressure on policy challenge President Wahid, causing political debate overwhelming.
[edit] Government of Megawati
At the first General Session in August 2000, President Wahid gave the answer for reports. On January 29, 2001, thousands of demonstrators stormed the Assembly and requested the President to resign on the grounds of involvement in a corruption scandal. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve the management and coordination in the government, he passed a presidential decree giving the state power daily to Vice President Megawati. Megawati took over as president soon after.
[edit] Government Yudhoyono
In 2004, the largest one-day election in the world held and Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono appears as the new president of Indonesia. The new government at the beginning of his tenure has received numerous trials and challenges, such as major earthquakes in Aceh and Nias in December 2004 that meluluh lantakkan part of Aceh and other earthquakes in early 2005 that shook Sumatra.
On July 17, 2005, an historic agreement was reached between the Indonesian government and Free Aceh Movement which aims to end the prolonged conflict for 30 years in the region of Aceh.
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