Rabu, 04 November 2009

my family

My Family is a British television Comedy, created and initially co-written by Fred Barron, produced by DLT Entertainment and Rude Boy Productions and broadcast by the BBC. Nine series have so far been broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom between 2000 and 2009, with Christmas specials broadcast from 2002 onwards.

Set in Chiswick in West London, it stars Robert Lindsay as Ben Harper, Zoë Wanamaker as his wife Susan and Kris Marshall, Daniela Denby-Ashe and Gabriel Thomson as their children, Nick, Janey and Michael. The series chronicles their everyday lives from their jobs to their unusual escapades involving funerals, shops and various other locations.

The sitcom was a ratings success from its debut and continues to draw large audiences for BBC One. Viewing figures have dropped since its debut in 2000, however they remain at a considerably large standard. The ninth series, which aired in 2009, claimed an average of five million viewers. A tenth and an eleventh series have been commissioned, a total of sixteen new episodes.[1][2][3] A Christmas Special will air in 2009, which will feature the departure of long-standing character Alfie Butts, followed by a second special in 2010.

Since the show’s debut, several characters have left and equally, several new characters have been introduced. The character of Janey left in 2002, however she returned in 2004 and has continued to remain on the show since. Kris Marshall’s character, Nick left in 2005 and has not returned. Also, the character of Abi, as played by Siobhan Hayes was introduced in 2002 and later left in 2008. The characters of Roger and Alfie were introduced in 2003 and 2005 respectively, as played by Keiron Self and Rhodri Meilir.

Since 2000, My Family has gained many fans and followers. On 14 March 2009, My Family Online was launched by Tom Simpson. The site has since expanded to include extensive episode, character and cast guides and reviews with the help of collaborator Daniel Lees.[4][5] The site is home to the only dedicated My Family Forums on the internet.[6]


Contents

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[edit] Background

In 1999, Fred Barron was considering producing a British sitcom, the American way. My Family was to feature a group of writers rather than the standard one or two, something that had been attempted in Britain with shows including Goodnight Sweetheart and On the Buses, but was nevertheless atypical. My Family was consciously designed to have wide appeal, with characters that viewers would be able to build a relationship with.

The main cast line up, from the sixth series through to the ninth.

My Family has broadcast nine series, seven specials and in total, one hundred episodes. A great deal of the show's success has come from the casting of Robert Lindsay and Zoë Wannamaker, as well as Kris Marshall, who appeared frequently in the first four series of the sitcom. The character of Nick was not intended to be a series regular; however, the success of Marshall's performance ensured his presence in around fifty episodes.

My Family chronicles the Harper family’s lives, from their jobs to their social lives. Mainly featuring on Ben and Susan, the show has been known to feature on sub-stories from both Nick and his harebrained schemes to Abi and Roger’s love life. It is described as a ‘dysfunctional family’ style sitcom, however many of the episodes feature the family working together to get each other out of trouble. Nick’s bizarre jobs became a major feature of the first four series. After the departure of Nick, Abi and Roger’s love life, Michael’s schemes, Janey’s endless list of boyfriends and Alfie’s dream of musical stardom have become more prominent.

The show has seen considerable development and change in the lives of its characters, seeing Janey turn from teenage rebel to mother, Nick turn from prat to a responsible-for-himself prat, Abi become Roger’s wife and Michael turn from schoolboy to student. Nevertheless, Ben remained the same self-absorbed dentist, Susan remained the same control freak and Alfie remained the same dim-witted layabout lodger. The characters of Nick, Brigitte and Abi have left the series over the nine years.

My Family has completed nine series, with a tenth and eleventh in production, making it the longest running sitcom this century. The eleventh series will likely be the last, as the lead actors have stated their intent to leave at its completion.

[edit] Cast and characters

The series featured eight main cast members throughout its run so far, with numerous characters recurring throughout the nine seasons. The main cast members were familiar to television viewers before their roles on My Family, but not all considered to be stars. During the series' nine season run, the actors all achieved household name celebrity status.

[edit] Main characters

  • Robert Lindsay (98/100) portrays Ben Harper, Ben Harper is a dentist who is constantly grumpy and sarcastic. When he is not at work sacking another assistant or trying to avoid fellow-dentist Roger, he is at home trying to relax (which never works). Ben isn't all bad though, behind his moody exterior he does really love his family and has to put up with being bossed about and manipulated by his wife Susan, continually fleeced for money by his children.[7]
  • Zoe Wanamaker (96/100) portrays Susan Harper, Susan Harper is a control freak and very good at getting her way. She is constantly worried about her three children and often forces Ben to go out his way to monitor or look after them. Susan is a tour guide but seems to spend most of her time at home. She is a terrible cook, and the rest of the family often have to sneak the food she has prepared into the bin without her noticing.[7]
  • Daniela Denby-Ashe (74/100) portrays Janey Harper, Fashion conscious, money loving, boy mad Janey spends all her time on the phone, switching boyfriends or pestering Ben for money so she can go shopping. Whilst at Manchester University (spending yet more of her dad's money) Janey got pregnant. She was chucked out and so returned home to once again take advantage of her parents. Susan doesn't seem to mind as it means she now has Kenzo Harper to look after.[7]
  • Gabriel Thomson (95/100) portrays Michael Harper, Michael (or 'Mikey' as Ben calls him) is the youngest of Ben and Susan's children. He is a smart, clever geeky adolescent. He looks down on his family as he is more sensible than the rest of them put together and often ends up having to get them out of trouble. In the last few years Michael has developed quite an interest in girls and often brings them home, much to his mother's disgust. It seems that since he started going to university he has become more of a rebel, with his bleached hair and piercings.[7]
  • Siobhan Hayes (57/100) portrays Abi Harper, Abi moved in to the Harper household in the third series. She is Ben and Susan's niece... although Ben wished she wasn't! Apart from being very clumsy, Abi was also very dim. She could often also be seen telling Ben and Susan off, as she was quite a well behaved character. It took her a while (how she missed all the clues we don't know), but Abi finally realised that Roger was madly in love with her and so married the dentist in Series 7. However, she has since left Roger to become a nun.[7]
  • Kris Marshall (44/100) portrays Nick Harper, Nick Harper is the oldest of the three siblings. He is a complete layabout who is constantly changing jobs - one minute he is a self-made stunt man, the next he is a mime artist. Nick is extremely laid-back and certainly cannot be trusted to carry out an important task or look after money! Nick was last seen moving out into his own flat - from the phone conversations Ben and Susan have with him it seems he is coping living on his own.[7]
  • Keiron Self (52/100) portrays Roger Bailey, Roger is the over-enthusiastic dentist who works in the same building as Ben. He often turns up at the Harper household un-invited and proceeds to un-intentionally annoy Ben. For a long period Roger was trying to build up the courage to ask Abi out on a date. They were, after all, ideally suited - like Abi, Roger possesses no common sense and is gullible. Eventually they did indeed get married but have since split as Abi has decided to become a nun. He's now a part-time policeman as well a dentist.[7]
  • Rhodri Meilir (31/100) portrays Alfie Butts, Alfie is a friend of Nick's. He turned up at the Harper household at Christmas in 2005 and hasn't yet moved out! Alfie comes from a small community in Wales which seems to have some rather backwards traditions, based on what we hear in the stories he tells. There were clearly not many girls where Alfie came from, so he very much enjoys spending time at the Harpers' and meeting Michael's friends. For some reason most of the family have turned to Alfie at one stage or other for his advice - you shouldn't ever take advice from Alfie! Alfie is a struggling musician - despite not having a steady income or place to live he is still very laid back about life.[7]
  • Tayler Marshall (12/100) portrays Kenzo Harper, Kenzo is the youngest member of the Harper household, son of Janey, grandson of Ben and Susan and nephew of Michael and Nick. Even at such a young age, he's shown a massive intelligence which at times even rivals (and at times even beats) Michael's. At the end of Series Nine, after doing his project about the family, he reveals to them that his teachers want him to go and see a phycologist...

[edit] Other characters

  • Daisy Donovan portrays Brigitte McKay, Brigitte McKay was Ben Harper's dental assistant for the entire first series of the show. She was known for her unique way of thinking and living. She often forgot to take phone messages for Ben, and irritates him while he works. Nick at one point shows lustful feelings towards her.
  • Rosemary Leach portrays Grace Riggs, Grace Riggs is Susan Harper's mother and is known for her addiction to alcohol. She has had various boyfriends in the show and is the member of the family to reveal to Ben that Susan was married before she married him. She also likes to make Susan feel guilty for not visiting her very much.
  • Kevin Bishop portrays Stupid Brian, Brian was Janey's boyfriend in the second series of the show. At the time, him and Janey were still students although Brian knew how to decorate. His nickname was 'Stupid Brian' for being very stupid but was surprisingly talented when he built a book shelf for the Harpers' kitchen.
  • Alex Dawson portrays Hubert, Hubert was or still is (unknown whether him and Michael are still in touch) Michael's best friend. Hubert was known for being very square but very smart. He once created a television remote that could gain 'free' access channel's that required pin numbers for them.
  • Andy Taylor portrays Hotel Receptionist, he appeared in 5 episodes though the show. He appears in different hotels across the country as a hotel receptionist. Each time he encountered the Harper family, he became for familiar with their dysfunctional antics. He once suspected that Susan was an escort and that Ben had a mistress.
  • Nickolas Grace portrays Mr. Casey, Mr. Casey lives is in the house next to the Harper's home. Although he is a neighbour, he does not get on with the Harper family. When he first appeared, he had a dog called Jemma after his wife died. He also tried to scam Ben for money after Ben ran him over.
  • Rachel Harvey portrays Fiona, Fiona is Michael's girlfriend through out the fourth series. Her and Michael are caught in bed together but never had sex. They are also caught in the airing cupboard kissing, and also a scene where Michael and Fiona begin to take their clothes off in his bedroom but Susan is listening and says they should stop.

[edit] Series synopses

Peter Capaldi portrays movie-star "Colin Judd" that visits Ben for dental health. Peter appeared in episode Dentist To The Stars which is the tenth episode of season five. Peter is best know for guest star roles in various shows, in both comedys and dramas.

The first series, Ben, a dentist, and Susan, the worst cook in the world, are certainly loving, caring parents, they just have a problem showing it. Ben seems to be confused as to how much time and money his kids demand from him. Susan has to juggle motherhood, a career and a husband and doesn't have enough time to manage everything including improving her cooking skills. Nick is always working on his next hair-brained scheme to keep him amused. Janey, like any normal teenage daughter feels that her parents are seriously embarrassing whilst Michael keeps his head in his books to get away from the noise.

The second series, Ben Harper, husband and father to three different and often difficult children has spent his working life as a dentist. Just as well as most of his life seems rather like pulling teeth. His wife Susan is usually busy showing foreign tourists around London, a place she knows much better than her own kitchen. Ben and Susan have been married happily enough to have three children. However, Ben has the feeling that most of the time his children seem to speak a different language. Nick (20) has persuaded his parents he would benefit from a gap year to see something of the world. To date, he has hardly seen anything beyond the confines of the sofa. Janey (17) is into boys, fashion labels (expensive ones) and getting her own way. Michael (14) is the brightest of the trio. He is seriously into computers, and, not so seriously (yet) into girls.

Anthony Head, portrays Ben's cousin and the father of Abi Harper. Anthony appeared in episode May the Best Man Win, which is the twelfth episode of the fourth series. Best known for playing the father-figure of the fictional character Buffy Anne Summers.

In series three, life in the Harper household is as hectic as ever, Janey has left for university and has been replaced in the house by their cousin Abi, who is more than a little accident prone! Ben sees this new addition to their home as a threat to the peace and quiet he's wanted throughout his married life, while Susan is happy to have another woman in the house. As for Michael, he is spending as much time thinking about girls now as his school work! And as if all this wasn't bad enough for Ben, Nick continued to work on his next hair-brained scheme, whether than means starring as Jesus in the local nativity play or dressing up as a drag queen!

In the fourth series, Susan is looking forward to the birth of her first grandchild, but dreading being a grandmother. Nick is getting fed up with living in his ghastly flat and trying to think of a way to move back into the family home. The gap between Michael's IQ and the rest of the family's seems to be increasing, but so is his libido. And Abi is still Abi, only more so! As for perennially put-upon Ben, what with a new arrival causing chaos in the surgery, being forced to take tango lessons and being officially declared dead, life is just one long major-league cirsis.

Series five, Ben and Susan are enjoying some new-found tranquility, Nick has moved into his own flat, Janey is at university and Abi is usually out at evening class. Naturally the peace isn't to last! Janey comes back home with baby Kenzo and Michael has been "born again" and is holding Bible study sessions in the living room. With Ben's famous dental patients, Susan's election ambitions and an unheathly obsession with Inspector Morse - not to mention the unlikely perils of house-sitting in a luxury modern apartment - domestic life is soon to be back to normal. So when Ben and Susan start being nice to each other it's no wonder Abi's suspicious; they couldn't be getting a divorce could they?

John Barrowman, portrays a man called "The Doctor" that Susan begins to fall for at an airport. John appeared in episode The Guru, which is the eighth episode of season nine. John is most famous for playing Captain Jack Harkness in Torchwood.

In the sixth series, Janey and son Kenzo spend much more time at the Harper house than is good for Ben, and Micheal moves from scam to scam with alarming ease. Add to that the ever-so-slowly blossoming of the Abi-Roger romance and the new cuckoo in the nest, wiser-than-he-looks Alfie Butts and the problems multiply. The family's hurdles include Ben joining a secret society (The Brotherhood of the Chicken), Suasn's new job leading her to a dinner date with a new man and an encounter with squatters. In other words, as usual, problems and situations constantly conspire to remind Ben and Susan that 'Family' is an 'F' word.

In the seventh series, a mystery man arrives asking for Janey - Susan finally discovers the identity of Kenzo's father. Roger and Abi's marriage announcement gives Susan the idea to renew her marriage vows despite protests from Ben. A death in the dentist's chair is not very good for business, but, as Ben discovers, it isn't very good for your private life either. Michael succeeds in placing the whole family on 'The Weakest Link', but Anne Robinson raises more difficult questions than might have been expected.

In the eighth series, love is in the air in the Harper house. Ben is in love - with an extremely large television; Janey is in love with a new man; and Michael's current love has announced that she is pregnant. Meanwhile, Ben and Susan's credit card statement highlights each of their secret vices and an armed robbery at the local bank leads to Ben and Janey being taken as hostages. Michael and Alfie investigate the world of internet dating with mixed results and Abi realises her true vocation in life is to become a nun!

In series nine, chaos, paranoia and misunderstanding - yes, it's life as usual in the Harper household. Ben stands up to - and gets put down by - his own school bully and gets a little jealous as a rich business man falls for Susan - or is that Janey? There are new worries as they discover Michael's seeing a therapist and Ben fails his retraining exam - and, while the family is divided over mean Uncle Norris's inheritance and the acquisition of a puppy, Ben's delighted to discover he's the inspiration for a wealthy if unhappy, celebrity dentist!

As for the future, it has been confirmed that the BBC has commissioned sixteen new episodes. These comprise of a seven part tenth series and a nine part eleventh series. It should be noted that a 2010 Christmas special could air in between series 10 and 11. The BBC do not include My Family specials in their series commissions; they are commissioned separately depending on the previous series' success.

[edit] Plot

My Family is about the life of the Harpers, a fictional upper middle-class English family, who live in 78 Lancaster Road, Chiswick, London. Ben, a dentist, and Susan, a tour guide who later works for an art gallery, have three children, Nick, Janey and Michael, all of whom cause problems in their own way. While Susan is a control freak, Ben prefers to leave the children to it and tries not to get involved. Janey later goes to University, but drops out and moves back in later, while Nick finally gets his own place. The first series features Ben's dental assistant, Brigitte, who unintentionally annoys Ben constantly. In the third series, Abi Harper, the daughter of Ben's cousin, comes to live with them, and she eventually falls for Roger, Ben's neighbouring dentist. Abi later leaves to become a nun.

[edit] Guest cast

[edit] Characters

The main characters in My Family are parents Ben and Susan Harper. They have three children, Nick, Janey and Michael. Nick is a regular character until the 2003 Christmas special, and makes one appearance in 2004's fifth series before making his final My Family appearance in the 2005 Comic Relief short as actor Kris Marshall wanted to do other projects and avoid being type-cast.[8] Janey is a regular until the 2002 Christmas special and does not appear in Series Four (2003), while the character is at University. Janey returns as a main character in Series Five.

Abi Harper first appears in Series Three as the daughter of Ben's cousin Richard.[9] Series Three also sees the first appearance of Roger Bailey, Jnr. Roger, who becomes a main character in the fourth series, is a dentist and the son of Ben's former mentor. In the 2005 Christmas special Alfie Butts, a friend of Nick's, moves into the Harper household.[8]

My Family also features several recurring characters. Series One features Daisy Donovan as Ben's dental assistant, Brigitte. In the second series "Stupid" Brian appears as Janey's boyfriend.[8] Series Four features Fiona, Michael's girlfriend. That series also sees the introduction of Hubert, a friend of Michael's, and Grace Riggs, Susan's mother, both of whom appear in subsequent series until Series Seven.[8] A minor recurring character from the 2006 Christmas Special to Series Seven is Denis, the local Vicar. In addition, Mr. Alexander Casey, the Harpers' neighbour, appears in two episodes, "Driving Miss Crazy" (2001) and "Neighbour Wars" (2008).

[edit] Episodes

The first episode aired on 19 September 2000, and nine series have so far been aired with seven specials, including four Christmas specials. The ninth series ended on Thursday 14 May 2009. A Comic Relief special short-episode has also aired.

The BBC and UKTV refuse to re-broadcast the series four episode "Blind Justice" due to the receipt of 4 complaints (from a viewing public of 12m). Although no reason was given, as this was not subject to any Ofcom procedure, it is likely that was considered offensive to blind people. This episode is banned from British TV, but it is still on the Series Four UK DVD release and has been screened on BBC America.[citation needed]

The episodes are recorded in front of a live audience in Pinewood Studios, Iver, Buckinghamshire, except where the set used is too large, this is then filmed, and played out to an invited audience 'as-live'. Also, the show, unlike most British sitcoms but in common with most American television comedies, has no location footage.

The series is scripted by a team of writers, following the American model. Historically, British sitcoms were more generally written by one or two writers. By employing a wider number of writers to brainstorm jokes for each episode, DLT Entertainment UK Ltd, the production company, has been able to maintain a consistent and relatively long-lived product without having to wait for a single writer to produce more material.[citation needed]

[edit] Opening sequence

At the start of the first two series, it slides across four boxes with each characters face in them. The first box stands alone with Ben and Susan in it. The other three are laped over each other with a photo of Michael, Janey and Nick from left to right in them. While it slides across at the start, each characters face turns with Janey and Nick smiling and the others being fairly plain faced. Once the boxes are placed, the boxes with youngster's in them drop to the bottom of the screen and are replaced with the shows logo.

At the start of the third series, four rectangle blocks fall onto a completely white screen to create Ben's face. Those blocks are then replaced with blocks that create Susan's face, each block then shows different parts of the other characters to finally reveal Nick's face. It continues to do this for Janey, Michael and new character to the show Abi. Abi's face then falls into the bottom right corner while the previous faces spread across to other places of the white screen. It reveals that Nick, Janey and Michael are next to Abi and Ben and Susan are with each other at the top left of the screen. The logo fades on the top right of the screen.

The fourth series is similar to the third series opening sequence. Only difference is that the photo of each character is changed, each block doesn't show different parts of each character when it transitions, instead it transitions in various styles, for exsample in a opening a window blind style. Series five titles still remain similar, the photo's are changed again and there are eleven rectangles instead of four. Nick is almost completely absent from the opening titles in series five, he was missing in some episodes from series four and a few from series three.

The series six opening titles have cut-outs of each character, as they fade in to the white screen and zoom in and out and eventually stop moving. The line-up from left to right is Abi, Michael, Susan, Ben, Janey and Roger. The titles remain the same for series seven and eight, the one difference is that Janey's clothes are changed. In series nine, the line-up changes due to Abi's reparture at the end of the previous series. Her place is taken by Alfie, who has been a regular since series six but never appeared in the titles until the ninth series.

[edit] References to pop culture

[edit] Writers

The main writer of My Family was its creator, Fred Barron. He wrote numerous episodes up until the fourth series. Other major writers include James Hendrie and Ian Brown who wrote numerous episodes together up until the 2004 Christmas Special. Shawn Schepps was a one-off writer who co-wrote one episode of the first series. Steven and Jim Armogida have written many episodes since the first series, and are still writing many of the present day episodes.

Robert Lindsay and Zoë Wanamaker as Ben and Susan.

Writers such as Penny Croft, Sophie Hetherington, Georgia Pritchett, James Cary and Tess Morris have all written at least one episode for the sitcom at one point. None of these writers have written more than five episodes. Andrea Solomons has written many episodes for My Family, she wrote from the second series to the sixth series. Meanwhile, Darin Henry has written one episode for the fifth series, one episode for the eighth series and continues to write to this day.

Paul Minett and Brian Leveson are the sitcom’s current main writers. Credited for most of the specials, at least three episodes from every series since 2005. The duo continue to write for My Family to this day. Bert-Tyler Moore and George Jeffrie both have written a few episodes for the sitcom in its sixth and seventh series. Tom Leopold wrote two episodes for the sixth series only. Tom Anderson wrote his first episode for series seven and continues to write for the show today. Ed Dyson and David Cantor have both started writing for the show more recently and have produced episodes for the seventh and eighth series. Table correct as of episode 100.

Writer ↓ Year(s) ↓ Episodes ↓
James Hendrie
Ian Brown
2000 - 2004 27 (inc. 2 co-written)
Fred Barron 2000 - 2003 8 (inc. 4 co-written)
Shawn Schepps 2000 1 (inc. 1 co-written)
Penny Croft 2000 1 (inc. 1 co-written)
Andrea Solomons 2001 - 2006 12 (inc. 1 co-written)
Sophie Hetherington 2002 - 2004 3 (inc. 2 co-written)
Georgia Pritchett 2003 1
James Cary 2004 1
Darin Henry 2004; 2008 - present 4 (inc. 1 co-written)
George Jeffrie
Bert-Tyler Moore
2006 - 2007 3 (inc. 2 co-written)
Tess Morris 2006 1 (inc. 1 co-written)
Tom Leopold 2006 2
Steve Armogida
Jim Armogida
2000 - present 23 (inc. 1 co-written)
Paul Minett
Brian Leveson
2005 - present 10 (inc. 1 co-written)
Tom Anderson 2007 – present 4 (inc. 1 co-written)
Ed Dyson 2007 - present 3
David Cantor 2007 - 2008 2
Amy Shindler 2009 - present 1
Andrew Kreisberg 2009 - present 1
Robin Taylor 2009 - present 1

[edit] Reception

Initially, the show received a poor critical response, with many dismissing its humour as mundane and dated.[citation needed] However, the programme received above average audience ratings, and further series were commissioned, with critical approval gradually improving as the series progressed[10] Bruce Dessau, writing on the 100th episode, noted that it was a comedy that "the critics hate, but the public love", on the basis of ratings.[11]

Star Zoë Wanamaker said in 2007 that she was no longer happy with the quality of the writing, and claimed she and co-star Robert Lindsay even refused to film one episode because it was so poor.[12]

In May 2009, the two stars revealed they were still unhappy with the writing quality, with Robert Lindsay stating "There's some real dross (in the scripts) and we're aware of it". He later admitted that the eleventh series might be the last stating "As far as Zoe (Wanamaker) and I are concerned, we will do a tenth series of 16 episodes, which the BBC will probably split into a tenth and eleventh, then that will be it." [13]

In 2004, the show came 24th in Britain's Best Sitcom.

MOTOGP

Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix is the premier championship of motorcycle road racing currently divided into three distinct classes: 125cc, 250cc (250cc will be replaced by the new Moto2, 600cc class in 2010), and MotoGP. Grand prix motorcycles are purpose-built racing machines that are neither available for general purchase nor can be legitimately ridden on public roads; this contrasts with the various production categories of racing, such as the Superbike World Championship, that feature modified versions of road-going motorcycles available to the public.

Contents

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[edit] Overview

A Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix was first organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) in 1949. The commercial rights are owned by Dorna Sports. Teams are represented by the International Road Racing Teams Association (IRTA) and manufacturers by the Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers Association (MSMA). Rules and changes to regulations are decided between the four entities, with Dorna casting a tie-breaking vote. In cases of technical modifications, the MSMA can unilaterally enact or veto changes by unanimous vote among its members.[1] These 4 entities compose the Grand Prix Commission.

There have traditionally been several races at each event for various classes of motorcycles, based on engine size, and one class for sidecars. Classes for 50cc, 80cc, 125cc, 250cc, 350cc, and 500cc solo machines have existed over time, and 350cc and 500cc sidecars. Up through the 1950s and most of the 1960s, four-stroke engines dominated all classes. In the 1960s, two-stroke engines began to take root in the smaller classes. By the 1970s, two-strokes completely eclipsed the four-strokes in all classes. In 1979, Honda made an attempt to return the four-stroke to the top class with the NR500, but this project failed, and in 1983, even Honda was winning with a two-stroke 500. The 50cc class was replaced by an 80cc class, then the class was dropped entirely in the 1990s, after being dominated primarily by Spanish and Italian makes. The 350cc class vanished in the 1980s. Sidecars were dropped from World Championship events in the 1990s (see superside), reducing the field to 125s, 250s, and 500s.

Yamaha YZR-M1 MotoGP bike

MotoGP, the premier class of GP motorcycle racing, has changed dramatically in recent years. From the mid-1970s until 2002 the top class of GP racing allowed 500cc with a maximum of 4 cylinders, regardless of whether the engine was a two-stroke or four-stroke. Consequently, all machines were two-strokes, due to the greater power output for a given engine capacity. Some two- and three-cylinder two-stroke 500s were seen, but though they had a minimum-weight advantage under the rules, typically attained higher corner speed and could qualify well, they lacked the power of the four-cylinder machines. In 2002, rule changes were introduced to facilitate the phasing out of the two strokes, probably influenced by what was then seen as a lack of relevance: the last mass-produced 500cc 2-stroke model had not been available to the public for some 15 years.[original research?] The rules permitted manufacturers to choose between running two-strokes engines (500cc or less) or four-strokes (990cc or less). Manufacturers were also permitted to employ their choice of engine configuration. Despite the significantly increased costs involved in running the new four-stroke machinery, given their extra 490cc capacity advantage, the four-strokes were soon able to dominate their two-stroke rivals. As a result, by 2003 no two-stroke machines remained in the MotoGP field. The 125cc and 250cc classes still consist exclusively of two-stroke machines. In 2007, the MotoGP class had its maximum engine displacement capacity reduced to 800cc for a minimum of 5 years.

The 2008 racing calendar consisted of 18 rounds in 16 different countries (Spain which hosted 3 rounds, Qatar, Turkey, China, France, Italy, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Czech Republic, San Marino, Portugal, Japan, Australia and Malaysia). Exclusive to the MotoGP class, there was also a USA round at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca in Monterey, California for the 800cc class only, as California's strict emissions law bans two-stroke motorcycles. In 2008 a MotoGP event was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for the first time on a newly prepared track, and observers noted that the Speedway had hosted motorcycle racing before cars raced there. All three classes were scheduled to race but severe wind and rain prevented the 250cc class from racing. MotoGP racing at Indianapolis is counterclockwise, starting on the Formula One track, with additional turns directly after the pit area, bypassing the banking turn one of the oval track. Also because of the race being run counterclockwise on what is normally a clockwise track, the run off areas have seen significant modification.

The grid is composed of three columns (four for the 125cc and 250cc classes) and contains approximately 20 riders. Grid positions are decided in descending order of qualifying speed, the fastest on the 'pole' or first position. Races last approximately 45 minutes, each race a sprint from start to finish without pitting for fuel or tires.

In 2005, a flag-to-flag rule for MotoGP was introduced. Previously, if a race started dry and rain fell, riders or officials could red-flag (stop) the race and either restart or resume on 'wet' tires. Now, if rain falls a white flag is shown, indicating that riders can pit to swap the motorcycle on which they started the race for an identical one, as long as the tires are different (that is, intermediates instead of wets, or slicks instead of wets)[1]. Besides different tires, the wet-weather bikes have steel brake rotors and different brake pads instead of the carbon discs and pads used on the 'dry' bikes. This is because the carbon brakes need to be very hot to function properly, and the water cools them too much. Hence the conventional steel brakes. The suspension is also 'softened' up somewhat for the wet weather.

When a rider crashes, track marshals wave a yellow flag, prohibiting passing in that area; one corner back, a stationary yellow flag is shown and passing in this area of the track is prohibited; if a fallen rider cannot be evacuated safely from the track, the race is red-flagged. Motorcycle crashes are usually one of two types: lowsides and the more dangerous highsides, though increased use of traction control has made highsides much less frequent.

According to one estimate, leasing a top-level motorcycle for a rider costs about 3 to 3.5 million dollars for a racing season.[2]

As a result of the 2008-2009 financial crisis, MotoGP is undergoing changes in an effort to cut costs. Among them are reducing Friday practice sessions; banning active suspension, launch control and ceramic composite brakes; extending the lifespan of engines; reducing testing sessions.[3]

[edit] Tires

Tire selection is critical, usually done by the individual rider based on bike 'feel' during practice, qualifying and the pre-race warm-up laps on the morning of the race, as well as the predicted weather. The typical compromise is between grip and longevity—the softer and 'grippier' the tire, the more quickly it wears out; the harder and less grip, the more likely the tyre is to last the entire race. Conserving rubber throughout a race is a specific talent winning riders acquire. Special 'Q' or qualifying tires of extreme softness and grip were typically used during grid-qualifying sessions until their use was discontinued at the end of the 2008 season, but they lasted typically no longer than one or two laps, though they could deliver higher qualifying speeds. In wet conditions, special tyres ('wets') with full treads are used, but they suffer extreme wear if the track dries out.

In 2007 new MotoGP regulations limited the number of tires any rider could use over the practice and qualifying period, and the race itself, to a maximum of 31 tires (14 fronts and 17 rears) per rider. This introduced a problem of tyre choice vs. weather (among other factors) that challenges riders and teams to optimize their performance on race day. This factor was greeted with varying degrees of enthusiasm by participants. Bridgestone had dominated in 2007 and Michelin riders Valentino Rossi, Nicky Hayden, Dani Pedrosa, and Colin Edwards all acknowledged shortcomings in Michelin's race tires relative to Bridgestone. Rossi, disappointed with and critical of the performance of his Michelin tires, switched to Bridgestones for 2008 and won the World Championship in dominant fashion. Pedrosa switched to Bridgestones during the 2008 season.

In 2008 the rules were amended to allow more tires per race weekend—18 fronts and 22 rears for a total of 40 tires. The lower number of tires per weekend was considered a handicap to Michelin riders. The only MotoGP team using Dunlops in 2007, Yamaha Tech 3, did not use them in 2008 but switched to Michelin.

For 2009, 2010 and 2011, a 'spec' tire supplier, Bridgestone, was appointed by the FIM (Michelin no longer supplying any tires to MotoGP). For the whole season Bridgestone will provide 4 different specifications of front tyre, 6 of rear, and a single wet specification—no qualifying specification. For each round, Bridgestone will provide only 2 specifications for front and rear. Tyres will be assigned to riders randomly to assure impartiality.[4]

[edit] Chronology

  • 1949: Start of Grand Prix motorcycle racing.
  • 1973: Deaths of Jarno Saarinen and Renzo Pasolini at the Italian round at Monza.
  • 1982: The Yamaha OW61 YZR500 is the first V4 in the 500cc class.
  • 1984: Michelin introduces radial tires in GPs.
  • 1987: Push starts are eliminated.
  • 1988: Wayne Rainey wins the first 500cc race using carbon brakes, at the British GP.
  • 1990: 500cc grid switches from 5 to 4 bikes per row.
  • 1992: Honda introduces NSR500 with big bang engine.
  • 1993: Shinichi Itoh and fuel-injected NSR500 break the 200 mph barrier at the German GP at Hockenheim.
  • 1998: 500cc switch to unleaded fuel.
  • 2002: 990cc 4-strokes allowed in premier class.
  • 2003: Daijiro Kato dies, leading to Suzuka's removal from the roster.
  • 2004: MotoGP grid switches from 4 to 3 bikes per row.
  • 2004: Makoto Tamada earns Bridgestone their first MotoGP victory at the Brazilian GP.
  • 2005: MotoGP adopts flag-to-flag rule, meaning races continue if rain begins.
  • 2007: MotoGP restricted to 800cc 4-strokes.
  • 2008: Dunlop drops out of MotoGP.
  • 2009: Michelin drops out of MotoGP and Bridgestone become sole tyre providers.[5][6]
  • 2009: Kawasaki Suspends MotoGP activities for 2009 and considers privateer team.
  • 2010: Moto2 4-stroke class replaces the 250cc 2-stroke class.

[edit] Riders

Top riders travel the world to compete in the annual FIM World Championship series. The championship is perhaps most closely followed in Italy and Spain, home of many of the more successful riders early in the 21st century. But in recent years more riders from the USA have been competing. This resulted in the reintroduction in 2005 of the US Grand Prix (albeit just for the MotoGP class, not 125cc & 250cc), an event staged at Laguna Seca where the American Nicky Hayden took his maiden MotoGP victory. Another American, Colin Edwards, gained second place in that race. In 2006, Hayden repeated his winning performance at Laguna Seca, despite serious difficulties with the track that—though repaved in June 2006, and incorporating improved safety features—exhibited serious problems with surface deterioration under conditions of severely warm weather. Hayden went on to win the 2006 MotoGP championship, with the winner of the previous five titles, Valentino Rossi, second. The Laguna Seca track was resurfaced for the 2007 event, leading to concerns about tyre choice on an entirely new racing surface.

The premier class in the early 21st-century seasons was dominated by Italian Valentino Rossi, winner of the 2001-2005 and later the 2008 and 2009 titles. In an effort to beat Valentino's amazing consecutive victories on the 500-cc two-strokes and then the 990-cc four-stroke machines, other companies signed younger riders on newly-designed 800-cc machines. Honda in particular took this approach, with their 2006 racing plans focused on winning with 'next-generation' teams, signing Toni Elías, Marco Melandri, Dani Pedrosa, and Nicky Hayden, all of whom were then under 25. Ducati successfully employed a similar strategy for the 2007 season when they signed 21-year-old Casey Stoner of Australia. After a string of victories and podiums the highly consistent Stoner earned Ducati and Bridgestone their first World Championship title at the Motegi round of the 2007 calendar. Despite excellent performances early in the 2008 season, Stoner eventually found himself behind Rossi in points and was unable to recover, losing to Rossi dramatically in the Laguna Seca round and later being hampered by an old wrist injury (broken scaphoid, which never fully healed in 5 years). Stoner underwent surgery at seasons end to resolve this problem.

The 2006 championship was the first in 14 years to be decided at the final race. Valentino Rossi started the race with a eight-point lead. Hayden finished third with Rossi finishing 13th after crashing on lap five, giving Nicky Hayden his maiden MotoGP World Championship title. For 2009 Hayden moves to Ducati after having ridden Hondas virtually throughout his road-racing career. In early tests on the 09 Ducati during winter testing he pronounced himself pleased with the move.

[edit] Specifications

The following shows the key specifications issues for each class. It was also introduced for the 2005 year, that under rule 2.10.5: 'No fuel on the motorcycle may be more than 15 °C below ambient temperature. The use of any device on the motorcycle to artificially decrease the temperature of the fuel below ambient temperature is forbidden. No motorcycle may include such a device.' This stops an artificial "boost" gained from increasing fuel density by cooling it.

[edit] 125cc and 250cc classes

125cc KTM Grand Prix motorcycle

125cc machines are restricted to a single cylinder and a minimum weight of 80 kilograms and the 250cc machines to two cylinders and a minimum of 100 kilograms. From 2005 onwards, all riders in the 125cc class could not be older than 28 years or 25 years for new contracted riders participating for the first time and wild-cards.

In 2008 discussions arose surrounding the replacement of the 2-stroke 250cc class with another category. The move to 600cc 4-stroke engines to replace the current 250s has been finalized as of June 2008 and will take effect in 2011 [7] The new class will be called Moto2. Engines will be produced by Honda[8]; tyres by Dunlop and electronics will be limited and supplied only by FIM sanctioned producers with max cost set at 650 EUR; carbon-fibre brakes will be banned and only steel brakes will be allowed. However, there will be no chassis limitations.[9]

[edit] MotoGP class

New specifications for each racing class are formed as the FIM sees fit. At the beginning of the new MotoGP era in 2002, 500cc two-stroke or 990cc four-stroke bikes were specified to race. The enormous power advantage of the larger displacement four-stroke engine over the two-stroke eliminated all two-strokes from competition; the following season no two-stroke bikes were racing. In 2007 the maximum engine capacity was reduced to 800cc without reducing the existing weight restrictions.

MotoGP-class motorcycles are not restricted to any specific engine configuration. However the number of cylinders employed in the engine determines the motorcycle's permitted minimum weight; more cylinders attracting more weight as a form of handicap. This is necessary because, for a given capacity, an engine with more cylinders is capable of producing more power. If comparable bore to stroke ratios are employed, an engine with more cylinders will have a greater piston area and a shorter stroke. The increased piston area permits an increase in the total valve area, allowing more air and fuel to be drawn into the engine, and the shorter stroke permits higher revs at the same piston speed, allowing the engine to pump still more air and fuel with the potential to produce more power but with more fuel consumption too. In 2004 motorcycles were entered with three-, four-and five-cylinder configurations. A six-cylinder engine was proposed by Blata, but did not reach the MotoGP grids. Presently four cylinder engines appear to offer the best compromise between weight, power and fuel consumption as all competitors in the 2009 series use this solution in either 'V' or in-line configuration.

In 2002, the FIM became concerned at the advances in design and engineering that resulted in higher speeds around the race track. For purposes of increasing safety, regulation changes related to weight, amount of available fuel and engine capacity were introduced. The amended rules reduced engine capacity to 800cc from 990cc and restricted the amount of available fuel for race distance from 26 litres in year 2004 to 21 litres in year 2007 and onwards. In addition, the minimum weight of 4 cylinder bike used by all participating teams was increased by 3 kg.

The highest speed for a MotoGP motorcycle is 349.288kph (217.037 mph), set by Dani Pedrosa riding a Repsol Honda RC212V 800cc during Free Practice 1 at the 2009 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix.[10] By way of comparison, the current Formula One speed record of 369.9kmh (229.8 mph) was set by Antônio Pizzonia of the BMW Williams F1 team, at Monza in 2004—however, top speed is only a small portion of the overall capabilities of any track vehicle and thus does not represent the difference between Formula One and MotoGP performance-wise in general. Using lap timings as a guide, MotoGP riders typically lap the Spanish Circuit de Catalunya in 1 minute 43 seconds compared to 1 minute 23 seconds for Formula One. Generally, cars have more grip thanks to more tires with bigger surface contact area combined with greater downforce from their bodywork, which results in greater corner speed.

[edit] Weights

Minimum Weight - MotoGP Class
Number of
cylinders
2002 Minimum 2007 Minimum Difference
2 135 kg (300 lb) 137 kg (300 lb) 2 kg (4.4 lb)
3 135 kg (300 lb) 140.5 kg (310 lb) 5.5 kg (12 lb)
4 145 kg (320 lb) 148 kg (330 lb) 3 kg (6.6 lb)
5 145 kg (320 lb) 155.5 kg (343 lb) 10.5 kg (23 lb)
6 155 kg (340 lb) 163 kg (360 lb) 8 kg (18 lb)
  • In 2005, fuel tank capacity was reduced by 2 litres to 24 litres
  • In 2006, fuel tank capacity was reduced by a further 2 litres to 22 litres
  • From 2007 onwards and for a minimum period of five years, FIM has regulated in MotoGP class that two-stroke bikes will no longer be allowed, and engines will be limited to 800cc four-strokes. The maximum fuel capacity will be 21 litres.

[edit] Engine Specifications

  • Configuration: V4 or Inline-4 (MotoGP class), 2-cylinder (250 cc), 1-cylinder (125 cc class)
  • Displacement: 800 cc (MotoGP class), 250 cc (250 cc class), 125 cc (125 cc class)
  • Valves: 16-valve (MotoGP), none (two-stroke engine) (250 cc, 125 cc)
  • Valvetrain: DOHC, 4-valves per cylinder (MotoGP),
  • Fuel: Unleaded (no control fuel) 100 Octane
  • Fuel Delivery: Fuel injection
  • Aspiration: Naturally-aspirated engine
  • Power Output: 240 bhp.
  • Lubrication: Wet sump
  • Maximum/minimum revs: 17500 - 18000 rpm
  • Max Speed: 217 mph (349 km/h)
  • Cooling: Single water pump

artist

The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of activities to do with creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. The common useage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). "Artiste" (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is certainly valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism.

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[edit] Dictionary definitions

Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (Singular: artist; Plural: artists) as follows:

  1. A person who creates art.
  2. A person who creates art as an occupation.
  3. A person who is skilled at some activity.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the older broad meanings of the term "artist,"

  • A learned person or Master of Arts (now rather obsolete)
  • One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry (also obsolete)
  • A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice - the opposite of a theorist
  • A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic - partly obsolete
  • One who makes their craft a fine art
  • One who cultivates one of the fine arts - traditionally the arts presided over by the muses - now the dominant usage

A definition of Artist from Princeton.edu: creative person (a person whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination).

[edit] History of the term

Although the Greek word "techně" is often mistranslated as "art," it actually implies mastery of any sort of craft. The Latin-derived form of the word is "tecnicus", from which the English words technique, technology, technical are derived.

In Greek culture each of the nine Muses oversaw a different field of human creation:

No muse was identified with the visual arts of painting and sculpture. In ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour.[1]

The word art is derived from the Latin "ars", which, although literally defined means, "skill method" or "technique", holds a connotation of beauty.

During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in some countries such as Italy, but the meaning was something resembling craftsman, while the word artesan was still unknown. An artist was someone able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined, rather than the activity field. In this period some "artisanal" products (such as textiles) were much more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures.

The first division into major and minor arts dates back to Leon Battista Alberti's works (De re aedificatoria, De statua, De pictura), focusing the importance of intellectual skills of the artist rather than the manual skills (even if in other forms of art there was a project behind). [2]

With the Academies in Europe (second half of XVI century) the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set.

Many contemporary definitions of "artist" and "art" are highly contingent on culture, resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting beauty and the beautiful, cannot be standardized easily without corruption into kitsch.

[edit] The present day concept of an 'artist'

Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially, as, "a person who expresses themselves through a medium". The word also is used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice.

Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of 'high culture', activities such as drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music—people who use imagination, talent, or skill to create works that may be judged to have an aesthetic value. Art historians and critics will define as artists, those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline.

The term also is used to denote highly skilled people in non-"arts" activities, as well—crafts, law, medicine, alchemy, mechanics, mathematics, defense (martial arts), and architecture, for example. The designation is applied to high skill in illegal activities, such as "scam artist" (a person very adept at deceiving others, often profiting (semi-illegally) from other people) or "con artist" (a person very adept at committing fraud).

Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences among "artist" and "technician", "entertainer" and "artisan," "fine art" and "applied art," or what constitutes art and what does not. The French word artiste (which in French, simply means "artist") has been imported into the English language where it means a performer (frequently in Music Hall or Vaudeville). Use of the word "artiste" can also be a pejorative term.[3]

The English word 'artist' has thus, a narrower range of meanings than the word 'artiste' in French.

the heart

The heart is a muscular organ found in all vertebrates that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The term cardiac (as in cardiology) means "related to the heart" and comes from the Greek καρδιά, kardia, for "heart."

The vertebrate heart is composed of cardiac muscle, an involuntary striated muscle tissue which is found only within this organ. The average human heart, beating at 72 beats per minute, will beat approximately 2.5 billion times during an average lifespan. It weighs on average 250 g to 300 g in females and 300 g to 350 g in males.[1]

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[edit] Early development

The mammalian heart is derived from embryonic mesoderm germ-layer cells that differentiate after gastrulation into mesothelium, endothelium, and myocardium. Mesothelial pericardium forms the inner lining of the heart. The outer lining of the heart, lymphatic and blood vessels develop from endothelium. Myocardium develops into heart muscle.[2]

From splanchnopleuric mesoderm tissue, the cardiogenic plate develops cranially and laterally to the neural plate. In the cardiogenic plate, two separate angiogenic cell clusters form on either side of the embryo. Each cell cluster coalesces to form an endocardial tube continuous with a dorsal aorta and a vitteloumbilical vein. As embryonic tissue continues to fold, the two endocardial tubes are pushed into the thoracic cavity, begin to fuse together and are completely fused at approximately 21 days.[3]

At 21 days after conception, the human heart begins beating at 70 to 80 beats per minute and accelerates linearly for the first month of beating.

The human embryonic heart begins beating around 21 days after conception, or five weeks after the last normal menstrual period (LMP), which is the date normally used to date pregnancy. It is unknown how blood in the human embryo circulates for the first 21 days in the absence of a functioning heart. The human heart begins beating at a rate near the mother’s, about 75-80 beats per minute (BPM).

The embryonic heart rate (EHR) then accelerates approximately 100 BPM during the first month of beating, peaking at 165-185 BPM during the early 7th week, (early 9th week after the LMP). This acceleration is approximately 3.3 BPM per day, or about 10 BPM every three days, an increase of 100 BPM in the first month.[4] After 9.1 weeks after the LMP, it decelerates to about 152 BPM (+/-25 BPM) during the 15th week after the LMP. After the 15th week the deceleration slows reaching an average rate of about 145 (+/-25 BPM) BPM at term. The regression formula which describes this acceleration before the embryo reaches 25 mm in crown-rump length or 9.2 LMP weeks is: Age in days = EHR(0.3)+6. There is no difference in female and male heart rates before birth.[5]

[edit] Structure

The structure of the heart varies among the different branches of the animal kingdom. (See Circulatory system.) Cephalopods have two "gill hearts" and one "systemic heart". In vertebrates, the heart lies in the anterior part of the body cavity, dorsal to the gut. It is always surrounded by a pericardium, which is usually a distinct structure, but may be continuous with the peritoneum in jawless and cartilaginous fish. Hagfishes, uniquely among vertebrates, also possess a second heart-like structure in the tail.[6]

[edit] In fish

Primitive fish have a four-chambered heart. However, the chambers are arranged sequentially, so that this primitive heart is quite unlike the four-chambered hearts of mammals and birds. The first chamber is the sinus venosus, which collects de-oxygenated blood from the body through the hepatic and cardinal veins. From here, blood flows into the atrium, and then to the powerful muscular ventricle, where the main pumping action takes place. The fourth and final chamber is the conus arteriosus, which contains several valves and sends blood to the ventral aorta. The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills, where it is oxygenated and flows through the dorsal aorta into the rest of the body. (In tetrapods, the ventral aorta has divided in two; one half forms the ascending aorta, while the other forms the pulmonary artery).[6]

In the adult fish, the four chambers are not arranged in a straight row, but instead form an S-shape, with the latter two chambers lying above the former two. This relatively simple pattern is found in cartilaginous fish, and in the more primitive ray-finned fish. In teleosts, the conus arteriosus is very small, and can more accurately be described as part of the aorta, rather than of the heart proper. The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes, presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of evolution. Similarly, while the sinus venosus is present as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable.[6]

[edit] In double circulatory systems

In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not completely separated into two pumps. The development of the double system is necessitated by the presence of lungs, which deliver oxygenated blood directly to the heart.

In living amphibians, the atrium is divided into two separate chambers by the presence of a muscular septum, although there is only a single ventricle. The sinus venosus, which remains large in amphibians, but connects only to the right atrium, receives blood from the vena cavae, with the pulmonary vein by-passing it entirely to enter the left atrium.

In the heart of lungfish, the septum extends part-way into the ventricle. This allows for some degree of separation between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the lungs, and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the rest of the body. The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be at least partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin in such species; thus, the blood returned to the heart through the vena cavae is, in fact, already partially oxygenated. As a result, there may be less need for a clear division between the two bloodstreams than in lungfish or other tetrapods. Nonetheless, in at least some species of amphibian, the spongy nature of the ventricle seems to maintain more of a separation between the bloodstreams than appears the case at first glance. Furthermore, the conus arteriosus has lost its original valves, and contains instead a spiral valve that divides it into two parallel parts, thus helping to keep the two bloodstreams separate.[6]

The heart of most reptiles (except for crocodilians; see below) has a similar structure to that of lungfish, but here, the septum is generally much larger. This divides the ventricle into two halves, but because the septum does not reach the whole length of the heart, there is a considerable gap near the openings to the pulmonary artery and the aorta. In practice, however, in the majority of reptilian species, there appears to be little, if any, mixing between the bloodstreams, so that the aorta receives essentially only oxygenated blood. [6]

[edit] The fully-divided heart

Human heart removed from a 64-year-old male.
Surface anatomy of the human heart. The heart is demarcated by:
-A point 9 cm to the left of the midsternal line (apex of the heart)
-The seventh right sternocostal articulation
-The upper border of the third right costal cartilage 1 cm from the right sternal line
-The lower border of the second left costal cartilage 2.5 cm from the left lateral sternal line.[7]

Archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of archosaurs evolved independently from that of mammals. In crocodilians, there is a small opening, the foramen of Panizza, at the base of the arterial trunks, and there is some degree of mixing between the blood in each side of the heart. Thus, only in birds and mammals are the two streams of blood - those to the pulmonary and systemic circulations - kept entirely separate by a physical barrier.[6]

In the human body, the heart is usually situated in the middle of the thorax with the largest part of the heart slightly offset to the left (although sometimes it is on the right, see dextrocardia), underneath the sternum. The heart is usually felt to be on the left side because the left heart (left ventricle) is stronger (it pumps to all body parts). The left lung is smaller than the right lung because the heart occupies more of the left hemithorax. The heart is fed by the coronary circulation and enclosed by a sac known as the pericardium and is surrounded by the lungs. The pericardium comprises two parts: the fibrous pericardium, made of dense fibrous connective tissue; and a double membrane structure (parietal and visceral pericardium) containing a serous fluid to reduce friction during heart contractions. The heart is located in the mediastinum, the central sub-division of the thoracic cavity. The mediastinum also contains other structures, such as the esophagus and trachea, and is flanked on either side by the right and left pulmonary cavities, which house the lungs.[8]

The apex is the blunt point situated in an inferior (pointing down and left) direction. A stethoscope can be placed directly over the apex so that the beats can be counted. It is located posterior to the 5th intercostal space just medial of the left mid-clavicular line. In normal adults, the mass of the heart is 250-350 g (9-12 oz), or about twice the size of a clenched fist (it is about the size of a clenched fist in children), but extremely diseased hearts can be up to 1000 g (2 lb) in mass due to hypertrophy. It consists of four chambers, the two upper atria and the two lower ventricles.

[edit] Functioning

In mammals, the function of the right side of the heart (see right heart) is to collect de-oxygenated blood, in the right atrium, from the body (via superior and inferior vena cavae) and pump it, via the right ventricle, into the lungs (pulmonary circulation) so that carbon dioxide can be dropped off and oxygen picked up (gas exchange). This happens through the passive process of diffusion. The left side (see left heart) collects oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium. From the left atrium the blood moves to the left ventricle which pumps it out to the body (via the aorta). On both sides, the lower ventricles are thicker and stronger than the upper atria. The muscle wall surrounding the left ventricle is thicker than the wall surrounding the right ventricle due to the higher force needed to pump the blood through the systemic circulation.

Starting in the right atrium, the blood flows through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle. Here it is pumped out the pulmonary semilunar valve and travels through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. From there, blood flows back through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium. It then travels through the mitral valve to the left ventricle, from where it is pumped through the aortic semilunar valve to the aorta. The aorta forks and the blood is divided between major arteries which supply the upper and lower body. The blood travels in the arteries to the smaller arterioles, then finally to the tiny capillaries which feed each cell. The (relatively) deoxygenated blood then travels to the venules, which coalesce into veins, then to the inferior and superior venae cavae and finally back to the right atrium where the process began.

The heart is effectively a syncytium, a meshwork of cardiac muscle cells interconnected by contiguous cytoplasmic bridges. This relates to electrical stimulation of one cell spreading to neighboring cells.

Some cardiac cells are self-excitable, contracting without any signal from the nervous system, even if removed from the heart and placed in culture. Each of these cells has its own intrinsic contraction rhythm. A region of the human heart called the sinoatrial node SA node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. The SA node generates electrical impulses, much like those produced by nerve cells. Because cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled by inter-calated disks between adjacent cells, impulses from the SA node spread rapidly through the walls of the artria, causing both artria to contract in unison. The impulses also pass to another region of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, a relay point called the atrioventricular (AV) node, located in the wall between the right artrium and the right ventricle. Here, the impulses are delayed for about 0.1s before spreading to the walls of the ventricle. The delay ensures that the artria empty completely before the ventricles contract. Specialized muscle fibers called Purkinje fibers then conduct the signals to the apex of the heart along and throughout the ventricular walls. The Purkinje fibres form conducting pathways called bundle branches. The impulses generated during the heart cycle produce electrical currents, which are conducted through body fluids to the skin, where they can be detected by electrodes and recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG).[9]

The SA node is found in all amniotes, but not in more primitive vertebrates. In these animals, the muscles of the heart are relatively continuous, and the sinus venosus coordinates the beat, which passes in a wave through the remaining chambers. Indeed, since the sinus venosus is incorporated into the right atrium in amniotes, it is likely homologous with the SA node. In teleosts, with their vestigial sinus venosus, the main centre of coordination is instead in the atrium. The rate of heartbeat varies enormously between different species, ranging from around 20 beats per minute in codfish to around 600 in hummingbirds.[6]

Cardiac arrest is the sudden cessation of normal heart rhythm which can include a number of pathologies such as tachycardia, an extremely rapid heart beat which prevents the heart from effectively pumping blood, fibrillation which is an irregular and ineffective heart rhythm, and asystole which is the cessation of heart rhythm entirely.

Cardiac tamponade is a condition in which the fibrous sac surrounding the heart fills with excess fluid or blood, suppressing the heart's ability to beat properly. Tamponade is treated by pericardiocentesis, the gentle insertion of the needle of a syringe into the pericardial sac (avoiding the heart itself) on an angle, usually from just below the sternum, and gently withdrawing the tamponading fluids.

[edit] History of discoveries

A human heart with a visible gun shot wound

The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BC. However, their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.

Philosophers distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Erasistratos observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.

The 2nd century AD, Greek physician Galenos (Galen) knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the inter ventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.

The first major scientific understanding of the heart was put forth by the medieval Arab polymath Ibn Al-Nafis, regarded as the father of circulatory physiology.[10] He was the first physician to correctly describe pulmonary circulation,[11] the capillary[12] and coronary circulations.[13] Prior to this, Galen's theory was widely accepted, and improved upon by Avicenna. Al-Nafis rejected the Galen-Avicenna theory and corrected many wrong ideas that were put forth by it, and also adding his new found observations of pulse and circulation to the new theory. His major observations include (as surmised by Dr. Paul Ghalioungui):[12]

1. "Denying the existence of any pores through the interventricular septum."

2. "The flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where its lighter parts filter into the pulmonary vein to mix with air."

3. "The notion that blood, or spirit from the mixture of blood and air, passes from the lung to the left ventricle, and not in the opposite direction."

4. "The assertion that there are only two ventricles, not three as stated by Avicenna."

5. "The statement that the ventricle takes its nourishment from blood flowing in the vessels that run in its substance (i.e. the coronary vessels) and not, as Avicenna maintained, from blood deposited in the right ventricle."

6. "A premonition of the capillary circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the pulmonary artery, this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two."

Ibn Al-Nafis also corrected Galen-Avicenna assertion that heart has a bone structure through his own observations and wrote the following criticism on it:[14]

"This is not true. There are absolutely no bones beneath the heart as it is positioned right in the middle of the chest cavity where there are no bones at all. Bones are only found at the chest periphery not where the heart is positioned."

For more recent technological developments, see Cardiac surgery.

[edit] Healthy heart

Obesity, high blood pressure and high cholesterol can increase the risk of developing heart disease. However, fully half the amount of heart attacks occur in people with normal cholesterol levels. Heart disease is a major cause of death (and the number one cause of death in the Western World).

Of course one must also consider other factors such as lifestyle and overall health (mental and social as well as physical).[15][16][17][18]

[edit] See also